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Types of E-commerce

E-Commerce, or Electronic Commerce, is the set of purchase and sale transactions carried out in the virtual environment of the Internet. Consequently, the management of payments and collections is carried out in this same environment, through electronic means.

E-Commerce is specifically limited to transactions of goods and services between a buyer and a seller, as opposed to the broader concept of E-Business, which refers to the entire process that must be carried out to manage an online business, including information and communication technologies (ICT), to carry out the activities and new strategies of a business, so it integrates all economic activities and business management practices that are carried out through the Internet.

Types of E-Commerce

E-Commerce can be classified, according to the characteristics of the operators, sellers and buyers, of the transaction, into the following types:

B2C (Business to Consumer)

E-Commerce is directed from the trading company to the final consumer. It is the category with the highest participation in E-Commerce, as it directs online commercial operators and their products to end markets, as well as being the one that is generating the highest growth, as a result of the increase in Internet users and the approach to normal online purchasing behavior.

The most outstanding advantages of this type of online commerce are:

The customer can access the virtual store from anywhere using an electronic device, which facilitates convenient and fast shopping.
Offers and prices are constantly updated to make them more attractive to customers.
Customer support can be provided directly by different means, such as live chat, social networks or email, among others.

B2B (Business to Business)

E-commerce is directed from the company to other organizations, companies or professional sectors.

C2C (Consumer to Consumer)

It consists of an online store that facilitates commercial relations between private consumers.

In this type of e-commerce, the business model is the sale of advertising in exchange for the traffic obtained, which is similar to an advertising media support. Examples of this type of C2C platforms are eBay or Wallapop.

C2B (Consumer to Business)

Portals in which individual users generally publish a service they offer to companies, in order to be hired. It is an unusual type of E-Commerce and very related to the freelance job search, such as the one developed by Twago.

B2E (Business to Employees)

It is also a very rare type of e-commerce, in which the company addresses its employees.

It serves as an incentive to the company’s employees by granting discounts and special coupons on the products it markets.

This type of e-commerce allows:

Reduce warehousing and shipping costs for the company.
Deliver unique opportunities for employees.
Motivates the employee with the company.

Stages in the creation of an Online Store (E-Commerce)

The creation and development of a marketing system for products or services through the Internet involves the implementation of a digital support, the online store or E-Commerce. The different phases for its creation are: • Commercial Idea: First of all, the idea about the exchange relationship to be established must be determined. What are the products or services, basic and peripheral that will be made available to potential buyers, intermediaries or end users, what advantages can be offered through the proposed E-Commerce, if there is any relevant difference compared to the current online stores and if it is a better solution to the current sales channels; the answer to these and other questions, will lead to improve the idea and generate new ideas to design digital marketing for the company. • Analysis: Although the first phase is already a first analysis, in which ideas are generated and screened; at this stage the selection of the idea on which the online store will be developed, through a contrasted analysis and based on a rigorous research on:

Value proposition: What differentiating need or expectation does the commercial approach satisfy?
Market: Is this a new type of E-Commerce or does it already exist?
Competition: Which direct or indirect competitors are currently developing a similar type of E-Commerce? What are their results? What can be improved?
Demand: Is there sufficient demand for this E-Commerce business model? What is the demand trend? Can it be boosted?
Difficulties: Analyze potential difficulties that may arise with each of the proposed E-Commerce approaches, whether technical or competitive.

Once the best business idea has been selected, it is advisable to carry out a SWOT diagnosis on it, which will facilitate the company’s next actions. In addition, in the event that the analysis does not offer a significant result on which is the optimal business idea, the realization of this diagnosis for each of them, can be definitive for their selection.

• Strategy: In this phase of creation, the following questions must be answered, which will define the design of the online store:

How will the customer get to know you?
Why would you prefer it to the competition?
What type of target audience (buyer) will be targeted?
What price segment will the products be in?
What is the business purpose?
What are the growth forecasts?

• Action plan: In this last phase, specific actions are specified, which must be aligned with the strategy.

The job of a journalist is to provide citizens with accurate and interesting information that allows them to exercise their rights, stay informed and make personal, political and social decisions consistent with their reality, but also to manage the brand image and communication of the companies and institutions for which they work. Nowadays, with such a wide variety of media and topics, it is essential for a communicator to specialize through a Master’s Degree in Journalism and Communication, such as the postgraduate course in Marketing Management and Political Communication that we offer completely online, which allows him/her to focus on a specific platform or topic. Thanks to the studies that we have developed in TECH with renowned professors in the communication sector, you can train and receive a high educational level degree, which will allow you to improve your job prospects and practice journalism with greater rigor and accuracy.

At TECH Technological University we offer a Master’s Degree in Communication Business Management and a Master’s Degree in Management of the Audiovisual Industry prepared by a brilliant teaching team with extensive experience in the sector. Get trained through the most effective teaching method and advance in your professional career.

Relationship between philosophy and religion

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The relationship between philosophy and religion results from how these thoughts have developed throughout human history. For this reason, it is necessary to enter into context about how each of them were shaped. In general, among philosophers there is no disagreement about the authenticity of the religious experience in the human being. However, there are different ways of interpreting it:

The positive mode, i.e. the believer: believing in a spiritual being who is above all (God).
The negative mode, i.e. atheism: denying the existence of God. This belief in the existence of God is a natural part of the human being, while atheism is its negative part.

This indicates that human beings were religious for their philosophy and philosophers for their religion, and throughout history they have been mutually related. Since the emergence of human civilization, societies have clearly demonstrated their strong and close relationship with religion, since it was the ancient Eastern civilizations that facilitated and paved the way for the emergence of Greek philosophy, in its abstract sense, through their religions and ideals (Alshboul, 2005).

History of thought

In these ancient oriental civilizations, the priests were the ones who directed the religion, human thought and culture of that time. Their ideology was a mixture of religious postulates combined with philosophical and scientific approaches, something that was accepted by their disciples, who in turn established the foundations of what would become Greek philosophy, influenced by Eastern thought.

Philosophy in Greece had a religious character and its religion a philosophical character. An example of this is Pythagoras, who is credited with minting the concept of philosophy (Alshboul, 2005). As stated by Cheney (1974, p. 92), “he is the most religious Greek philosopher, and he is one of the most philosophized of the great Greek religious men”. Moreover, Pythagoras was the founder of the Pythagorean School of Philosophy, and leader of the revival of the ancient religion Orpheus (Shanar, 1988, p. 64). On the other hand, the different religions, and especially the most important ones, have never been absolutely against abstract theoretical thinking (Alshboul 2005).

In any case, it cannot be denied that at certain times there were disputes between the religious and the philosophers. The first of these occurred in the Christian Middle Ages; the priests oppressed and confiscated the freedom of opinion and writing from philosophers, putting on trial those who expressed new opinions. This dispute continued into the Renaissance and into the 18th century, with movements such as the Enlightenment and Liberalism, when this relationship changed.

On one hand, the Church lost religious power, while the philosophers’ idea was to consider that the church was no longer an obstacle, so they stopped challenging its rules. In the Islamic world, disputes were globalized in how the verses of the Koran were interpreted (Alshboul, 2005).

Separation of ideologies

There are notable differences between religion and philosophy. For religions, truth is dogmatic and absolute. It cannot be refuted. An absolute truth can exist on this plane of existence. For philosophies, on the contrary, no absolute truth can exist on this plane. Consequently, one can only speak of relative truths, and of an access to the true by a progressive ascent, through the awareness of one’s own ignorance.

On the other hand, the methodology of religion is based on belief, while philosophy does not accept this method (Alshboul 2005). Even so, the purpose that both share is to arrive at the truth. Religion represents one of the most complex phenomena for philosophy and for the human being himself. At present, it is not possible to speak of a radical separation between them; there are theories that link them, such as neothomism or Christian existentialism.

For its part, a branch of Philosophy called Philosophy of Religion, studies among other elements:

Principles, foundations, characteristics and types of religious beliefs.
Relations between religions and other types of beliefs.
The links between religions, ideologies and their cultural contexts.
The influence of religions on moral, aesthetic, etc. expressions.

Relationship between philosophy and catholic religion

The Church is not and cannot be a stranger to man’s search to understand his meaning and orient his realization. Among the means at man’s disposal in this search, philosophy stands out, which arises and develops when the person begins to question himself about the meaning and purpose of reality. Thus, understood as “love of wisdom”, philosophy is one of the noblest tasks of humanity (John Paul II, 1998).

From the beginning, the Church has affirmed its closeness to the philosophical search for wisdom, since reason does not oppose or contradict faith, but rather, both reinforce each other, since they are “the two wings with which the human spirit soars towards the contemplation of truth” (John Paul II, 1998).

Moreover, the Church “considers philosophy as an indispensable aid to deepen the understanding of faith and to communicate the truth of the Gospel to those who do not yet know it” (John Paul II, 1998). The Church cannot but be interested in philosophy.

Reasons of interest

In questioning access to the truth, new generations “are deprived of authentic points of reference”, of a “basis on which to build their personal and social existence” (John Paul II, 1998). Philosophy, whose vocation is to form thought through the search for truth, is responsible for this.
The encyclical Fides et Ratio (John Paul II, 1998), in a manner comparable to Aeterni Patris (Leo XIII, 1879), develops these teachings of the Second Vatican Council, insisting on the significance of philosophy for man and for the Christian faith, seeking to apply this teaching and to stimulate philosophical work, first of all, in the centers proper to the Church.
The study of philosophy is important for the formation centers themselves, since it is necessary to “face the demands of the contemporary world” (John Paul II, 1998), both in the pastoral task and in the effort to understand the faith.

In conclusion, in view of the demands of the life and mission of the Church in today’s world, in view of her need for the intelligence of faith, understanding and dialogue with contemporary man, the Encyclical considers it urgent to underline “the great interest that the Church has in philosophy; moreover, the intimate bond that unites theological work with the philosophical search for truth” (John Paul II, 1998).

The professional and his role in education

At TECH Technological University, each of the specializations are carefully designed by subject matter experts. For this reason, its Faculty of Education stands out with programs such as the Master’s Degree in Inclusive Education for Children and Teenagers at Risk of Social Exclusion and the Master’s Degree in International Cooperation for People Development. However, for those professionals who are clear that their approach must be linked to religion as a primary basis, the Master’s Degree in Catholic Education will certainly meet their expectations.

Phases of a scientific research

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A scientific investigation must be carried out in an infinite number of professional processes where accuracy is required. This process allows the elimination of errors in each task, allowing optimal results in any case. This does not exclude the journalistic media, since the capture and classification of information must be transparent and real, according to the facts. In this article we will see the phases of scientific research focused on the media.

One of the main weaknesses diagnosed in the world of communication research is the weak training with which many participants reach the final stages of their studies. They are asked to generate a research project (degree work) without having been properly trained in the area. This module trains the participant in the phases that must be covered in order to generate a feasible and solid research project.

You will learn to discriminate the correct approach depending on the purposes pursued in the project. Likewise, you will learn to discriminate the appropriate tools for the collection of information and its subsequent processing. In this topic you will look closely at each of the phases of an investigation to understand the processes behind each one.

The first topic described research as a methodological process. Hence, the importance of understanding each step, its implications and the tools that can be used to do it as well as possible. As will be seen, each step links to the one that follows and also to the one that preceded it.

Phases of an investigation

The phases of an investigation are as follows:

Choice of Topic.
Problem statement.
Problem Justification.
Research Objectives.
Theoretical Framework.
Methodology.

As can be seen, it is a complex process and each phase is very important.

Choice of Topic

In the previous topic something was anticipated about the complexity of this part of the research. One of the first and most important decisions that the researcher has to make is to select a topic that meets a series of qualities that can later justify its selection. The most suitable approach is to start by selecting a very general one, and then progressively narrow it down.

In the choice of the topic, the object of knowledge is located and the tentative title of the research can be structured according to this topic. It should be answered in a synthetic way:

What will be investigated?
How will the research be conducted?
Why is the research topic important?
The questions are how, why, when and where.

At this point we recall the exercise that was carried out previously, in which we tried to define the topic that dealt with the use that women make of social networks. It is a matter of “questioning the object of study” until one is very clear about what one wants to do. One should imagine that this process is to put within limits, a sort of corral, the subject that one seeks to address.

It should be very clear what is included, i.e., what will be addressed and what will not? It is recommended to make a list, listing those topics that attract attention. It should be verified that they do not repeat or overlap with each other.

Scientific research approach

But how should it be approached? Experts recommend answering questions that help to define it:

What will be studied?
How is it defined, what are its characteristics?
Try to define very clearly, what it is?, and more importantly, what it is not?
Where is it going to be studied? The space of this context, where?: it can be a real space, i.e. a specific place (a country, city, town, village, urbanization, street, company, organization, institute, etc.) It can also be a figurative space (science, discipline, current of thought, field of study, literary movement, etc.).
When is it going to be studied? Time. When?: if it is a recent or long-standing issue.
Why are you going to study?

What are the reasons for your selection?

In this regard, Montes del Castillo* states that it is convenient that the student, when choosing the line and problem or topic of research, takes into account his or her own academic and social interests, his or her abilities and skills in research, or the applied dimension of the topic for social action. The choice should take into account research training and experience.

It is therefore advisable that the research problem should start from what is known, i.e., if the researcher is in the field of communication, the problem should arise from there. While it is true that those who are well trained in research can approach any object of study, it would undoubtedly expose them to certain unknowns – contextual elements, terminology, etc. – that could slow down the research.

What can be investigated? Stage 1

Ideas for research may arise from a vague but persistent intuition, a personal dissatisfaction, or any other issue identified in creative practice. Alternatively, it may be a professional stimulus that must be responded to creatively in order to survive or thrive, for example, new approaches to practice in response to cultural, social, economic, or environmental challenges.

Whatever the initial impulse, the “what” must come from a genuine will to find something, or else the study or enthusiasm is unlikely to be sustained. Note that the idea according to the authors comes from what is known, from what is handled and seen on a daily basis. It arises from a problem in which, generally, researchers feel directly or indirectly affected.

It may originate from the work environment, being a problematic reality that we wish to intervene and solve. In any case, the common denominator to all spaces is the will and personal desire to address the problem.

Why is research necessary? Step 2

Consideration should be given to whether the idea could actually be developed into a viable research topic in need of research. Generally, there is a good personal reason for conducting the research – mostly practice-related issues – but is there a broader need and could it be confirmed? The feasibility discussed earlier.

It does not make sense to undertake an investigation if you can anticipate its failure or the impossibility of completing it. There may be a need to answer this question, but it will be very important to anticipate the viability of the answer.

Stage 3

An initial search should be made for information that supports that intuition (research proposal) and, ideally, suggests that research is necessary. It is important to have some exchange of information with others in professional or research contexts. Gather basic information about the research proposal and its ethical implications.

There is something known as the “reference system”. The choice of the research topic/problem starts and should always include a process of familiarization with the topic, its theoretical references, the actors involved. All this will allow a better understanding of the problem and its subsequent approach.

For the authors, all these stages are part of what they call “The planning of the journey”, and as it happens in a real journey, they can be overlapped or repeated if necessary. What is not questionable or arguable is that the destination must be fairly clear and the origin as well. To quote Lewis Carrol in Alice in Wonderland: “If you don’t know where you are going, any road will take you there. The road map must be clear”.

Stage 4

Context study and review is an essential process for several reasons: (a) studying the context in which you are working increases your understanding of it in a general sense, both historically and in contemporary terms; (b) more specifically, it allows you to select which particular pieces of information are directly related to the research area and can critically assess relevance and significance; (c) in the process of critical study and review, you can identify some “gaps” in knowledge that help focus the research question, and confirm that you are not likely to be re-inventing the wheel!

The professional and the scientific process

At TECH Technological University, a large part of the student body is focused on professional success. For this reason there is a diversity of specializations that allow this figure to perform an adequate task in any field of action. A clear example is its Faculty of Communication and Journalism where specializations such as the Master’s Degree in Judicial Journalism and the Master’s Degree in Political Journalism can be found.

However, none of these specializations is as close to the subject of research processes as the Master’s Degree in Research in Communication Science. In this course, the professional will acquire the knowledge to become an expert in the field in just one year, accompanied by specialists in the area.

Dalton, Henry, Boyle and Mariotte’s laws of physics

In order to understand how respiratory diseases and their respective oxygenation treatments work in the human body, an in-depth understanding of the fundamentals of hyperbaric oxygenation treatment (HBOT) is essential for professionals working in the healthcare field.

General information

In order to study the physical basis of the foundation of hyperbaric oxygenation treatment, it is necessary to know the following general characteristics of gases: the constants, pressure and density, the composition of air and the characteristics of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

The relevant information is based on Boyle’s and Mariotte’s gas law, the universal gas equation, Dalton’s law, Henry’s law and Fick’s law of diffusion. Also, it is necessary to know the principle of the adiabatic decompression law, Avogadro’s number and the units of pressure.

Basic concepts

Molecular weight: 1 mole of a substance (atoms, ions, molecules or formula units) is 2 Avogadro numbers.
Avogadro’s number: (6.022 x 1023) is approximately the number of particles (atoms, ions, molecules or formula units) contained in 1 mole of an oxygen, which has a molecular weight of 32 g, defined as the molecular weight of a substance.

Characteristics of gases

Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro’s law postulates that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. At standard conditions (0 °C, 1.013 bar) the volume of any gas is 22.42 l/mol.

Avogadro (1811) and Ampère (1814) independently proposed the existence of gaseous molecules formed by two or more equal atoms. However, both authors reached the same conclusion: in a chemical reaction, a molecule of a reactant must react with one or more molecules of another reactant. This gives rise to one or more molecules of the product. However, a molecule cannot react with a non-integer number of molecules since the minimum unit of a reactant is the molecule.

Therefore, there must be a simple integer relationship between the molecules of the reactants, and between these molecules with those of the product.

Boyle and Mariotte’s Law

First described independently by Mr. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and Edme Mariotte (1620-1684). It is also called the ‘Boyle-Mariotte law’. Its equation is pxV= constant at constant temperature.

The product of pressure (p) and volume (V) in a quantity of gas at equal temperature (T) remains constant. For a confined quantity of a gas in two different states at constant temperature the equation changes: p1V2 = psV2.

Hyperbaric relevance: within hyperbaric chambers, any gas volume confined in the human body and in equipment (medical) is subject to this law. In organs or gas-filled spaces with rigid walls, this effect must be taken into account during compression and decompression at higher pressures. This is most important between 1 bar and 1.5 bar (100 kPa – 150 kPa) where pressure changes cause the greatest relative volume changes.

Dalton’s Law

First described by John Dalton (1766-1844) in 1801. This gas law is also called Dalton’s partial pressure law, which states that the total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures that would be applied by the gases if each were present and occupied the total volume.

Each gas in the mixture acts as if it were alone, so the pressures of each gas forming a mixture add up. The partial pressure of a gas (p1) equals the product of the total pressure of the gas mixture (Pt) and the fraction of the gas (F1). Equation: P1=Pt x F1.

Practical relevance: gases that are not toxic when inhaled at ambient pressure, in a certain percentage of a gaseous mixture (vol. %) may become toxic when inhaled at elevated total pressure. It is the partial pressure, not the percentage in a gaseous mixture, that causes toxicity. In addition, if the partial pressure of oxygen is increased in the air mixture, it will exert higher partial pressure and consequently higher total pressure at the level of the pulmonary alveolus.

Henry’s Law

This law, first formulated by William Henry (1775-1836) in 1803, states that the mass of a gas (C) dissolving in a defined volume of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas (P), provided that the gas does not react with the solvent. Equation: αP/C = constant at constant temperature.

P=partial pressure of oxygen.
C=gas concentration in liquid.
A=Bunsen solubility coefficient (specific for gases and liquids).

As a basic principle, the solubility of gases is greater in cold liquids.

Practical relevance: The pressure-dependent solubility of inert gases (e.g. nitrogen) in body fluids and tissues is crucial for the development of decompression sickness (DCS). This is due to the supersaturation of tissues in relation to the reduced environmental pressure after exposure. The solubility of nitrogen in water is much lower than the solubility of oxygen. It constitutes one of the causes of decompression sickness of the diver. On the other hand, as the pressure inside the hyperbaric chamber increases, the pressure in the hematoalveolar space produced increases the amount of oxygen diluted in the plasma and tissue fluids. Thus, the higher the pressure, the greater the amount of gas diluted in the liquid, at constant temperature.

Fick’s Law

Fick’s diffusion laws were derived by Adolf Fick in 1858. The first law is used in steady state diffusion and results in the formula below (which indicates the rate of diffusion of a gas across a membrane): Diffusion rate= k x A x ΔP.

K=constant (determined by experiment, gas and temperature).
A=surface area where diffusion takes place.
ΔP=difference between the partial pressures between the two sides of the membrane.
D=distance over which diffusion takes place.

Practical relevance: At various locations in the human body, the partial pressures of dissolved gases (such as oxygen or nitrogen) depend on diffusion. Variables for gas diffusion such as the size of the diffusion area, the thickness of the diffusion barrier (or distance) and the difference between the gas partial pressures are considered. If the difference is greater, the diffusion rate is greater between both sides of the membrane (for the same membrane size and the same distance).

Atmospheric air

Atmospheric air is a mixture of different gases (21% oxygen, 79% nitrogen, including 1% argon). The CO2 fraction is practically imperceptible, being slightly more important in expired air (approximately 4 %).

Water vapor is a highly variable component of air. At higher temperatures, the air may contain larger amounts of water vapor. The unit ‘% relative to humidity’ is temperature dependent. Also, like all other gases in the air mixture, water vapor produces a gas pressure (pH2O) at 37 °C and 100 % relative to humidity (= 100 % saturation with water vapor) pH2O equals 47 mmHg.

Finally, the different physical laws are applied in the foundation of hyperbaric oxygen therapy both in the desired effect and in the considerations of adverse events. Their understanding makes it possible to distinguish the different effects that can be obtained from the combination of increased atmospheric pressure and increased partial pressure of inspired oxygen.

Respiratory diseases

Currently there is a resurgence in the use of hyperbaric oxygenation treatment (HBOT) as an auxiliary tool in different medical specialties. TECH Technological University offers different high quality postgraduate courses such as the Master’s Degree in Respiratory Physiotherapy in Rehabilitation Medicine and the Master’s Degree in Improvement of Intensive Care Medicine, in which the topics related to the different respiratory diseases and their respective studies are deepened.

The Master’s Degree in Hyperbaric Medicine teaches how the creation of new generation hyperbaric chambers, more accessible to use, cost, and installation in public and private health institutions, has made different professionals incorporate this tool in their daily practice.

What are social sciences?

The Social Sciences are the concept that brings together those disciplines dedicated to the study of human beings and their social and cultural behavior, such as history, anthropology, economics, geography.

Generically defining the word “science” is a very complex task since it brings together a multitude of very different scientific disciplines. Science is defined as the “body of knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, systematically structured and from which general laws with predictive and experimentally verifiable capacity are deduced”. In other words, science is dedicated to the study of natural and social phenomena, from which it extracts knowledge that must be organized and systematized in order to obtain hypotheses, theories or laws.

There is a classification that generically groups the different scientific disciplines.

Formal sciences

These are sciences that establish logical reasoning and ideas created with the help of the intellect. They have as their source of study abstract concepts that can be applied to reality. They are sciences such as Mathematics, Statistics, Logic.

Natural sciences

Sciences whose purpose is the study of nature. The study of these questions requires observation and experimentation on the object of study. Chemistry, astronomy, biology, physics and geology are part of the natural sciences.

Natural sciences

Under the name of “social sciences” are gathered those disciplines that deal with the study of those aspects related to human behavior, especially culture and society. Social sciences include history, anthropology, sociology, demography, among others.

Concept, classification and development

The desire to establish and classify the disciplines and fields of study related to the social sphere is a question that arose in the 19th century. It arose from the need to systematize and give a name to those disciplines that could not be included within the natural sciences. This is how the term “Social Sciences” came about, which are those that are dedicated to the study of human beings and their social environment and which, up to that time, had been defined as humanities, literature, arts… but had never been given a scientific character.

For this enterprise, scholars such as Auguste Comte resorted to the already established model and sought to apply the same model to the new science. That is, they tried to transfer the same model from the natural sciences to the social sciences in order to obtain objective scientific knowledge, albeit within a social setting. However, these new disciplines cannot be analyzed by means of the same mechanisms as the natural sciences, since the field of study is not the same. The social sciences must be studied and analyzed by means of particular and specific processes. However, in the same way, the objective is scientific knowledge, since it should not be forgotten that it is a science.

But how might the social sciences be defined? The National Science Foundation says of the social sciences that they “are intellectual disciplines that study man as a social being by means of the scientific method. It is their focus on man as a member of society and on the groups and societies that form it that distinguishes the social sciences from the physical and biological sciences.” At the beginning of the 20th century it was established that the social sciences were made up of disciplines such as history, economics, sociology, political science and anthropology. Later, psychology and demography were also included.

History

It is the social science dedicated to the study of the events of the past of humanity. Using historiography as a method and technique, it is dedicated to describe and narrate the historical facts of the past. The results of research must be subjected to a process of analysis, following the scientific method in order to obtain objective knowledge as a result.

Historical research often draws on other disciplines (whether in the scientific or natural realm) as history takes place in a place (geography), people with ideology (anthropology) who lived with animals (anthropology or zoology). Conducting historical research is therefore a multidisciplinary task. Other sciences such as prehistory or archaeology can be found within history.

Anthropology

It is the science dedicated to the study of human beings and their behavior within a cultural and social context. It is dedicated to analyzing the behaviors of human beings over time, how their cultures evolve, their relationship with the environment, cultural manifestations, etc.

In short, it focuses on the investigation and analysis of human beings in all their aspects, whether biological or sociocultural. In this way, anthropology can be divided, in turn, into two branches according to the field of study: biological or physical anthropology and sociocultural anthropology. Each of these is composed of other disciplines.

Geography

It is the discipline that deals with the study of the characteristics of the earth: places, landscapes, territories and the relationships of these aspects with the societies that inhabit it. A division can be established within Geography:

Physical geography: dedicated to the study of the environment.
Human geography: dedicated to the study of societies and populations.

Ethnology

It could be considered a discipline within anthropology. Ethnology systematically compares and studies the ethnicities and cultures of ancient and present-day peoples in aspects such as religion, customs, culture, political and economic systems, symbolic expression, etc.

Economy

It is considered a social science because it is responsible for analyzing the behavior of men in an economic environment. It studies the methods of production of resources and the distribution and consumption of goods and services by human beings.

Sociology

“It is the science that deals with the structure and functioning of human societies”. In other words, sociology is dedicated to the study of human behavior within society and within a given temporal, geographical and cultural context, and common among the members of the same social group. Sociology studies the family, religion, companies, educational institutions, etc. But also behaviors that characterize societies such as beliefs, values, cultural manifestations, criminality, and how these aspects affect and condition people. Sociology is a science that deals with very broad and disparate topics, so different methods are used to obtain scientific knowledge.

Political science

Also known as political science. It is the social discipline dedicated to the analysis and theoretical and practical study of politics, political systems and social aspects related to politics. It studies the democratic or autarchic system, but also how these systems influence the different agents of society as well as the political actors.

Demographics

It is the science that studies, through statistics, human populations and their distribution. Also the population changes that occur in a given space of time and a given place as a result of migration or birth and death rates.

Psychology

Psychology is the science dedicated to the study of human behavior and mental behavior in relation to the physical and social environment. Psychology can study the behaviors of a specific individual, but also of a human group. It analyzes a multitude of aspects and functions such as memory, intelligence, learning, sexuality, perception. Psychology is a very broad field that can be divided into many branches depending on the object of study. This is the case of social psychology, clinical psychology, forensic psychology and sexology.

Linguistics

It is the social science dedicated to the study of languages and human language. It investigates the origin, evolution and structure of language in order to know the laws that govern languages, both ancient and modern.

Epistemological issues

Epistemology is the doctrine that has as its source of study the knowledge and means of scientific knowledge.

The task of defining the term Social Sciences requires first taking into account that this concept is made up of many different sciences. The social sciences are, as mentioned above, the set of disciplines whose purpose is to study all aspects of human beings and their society. The breadth of the term and of the sciences that make it up has led to the emergence of other terms or concepts that are close in terms of general definition. However, they are more specific or concrete in terms of the sciences that could integrate them. This is the case of Human Sciences, Sciences of Man, Social Science, Cultural Science. But do they all refer to the same thing?

The use of one term or another depends on the author consulted. While some scholars consider that all the terms refer to the same issue, others establish differences. Regarding the first of the cases, the one that considers any of these terms as synonymous with social sciences, Piaget could be mentioned as an example. He states that “it would not be possible to maintain any distinction of nature between what are often called ‘social sciences’ and the so-called ‘human sciences,’ since it is evident that social phenomena depend on all the characters of man. Here psychophysiological processes are included. Moreover, reciprocally, the human sciences are all those which are social in one or other of their aspects”.

Piaget affirms that human sciences and social sciences are terms that are practically synonymous because the social is the product of human actions and, therefore, one cannot be separated from the other by establishing independent disciplines in each of them.

Purpose of the general study

The general purpose of the Social Sciences is to study the human being and his behavior with other individuals. Man is the protagonist of the study and research of those disciplines that are considered part of the Social Sciences. These social disciplines have as their objective the global knowledge of man in all his historical and geographical extension. While the Natural Sciences have as their object of study all the elements that form part of nature, the Social Sciences direct their attention towards man. The human being is a participant in a society in which he grows, develops and relates.

These sciences also teach a series of values. As is evident, each society has a series of values that must be respected in order to guarantee a peaceful life in common. The study and understanding of these values makes it easier for the student to apply them to his daily life, thus favoring the creation of a stable and cohesive society.

In this sense, transmitting values in the Social Sciences is not synonymous with moralizing or imposing them on students. The process of learning values is a consequence of learning one’s own knowledge, so that one aspect can be separated from the other. These learnings must be extracted from the contents after submitting them to a rational and critical analysis that makes the teacher understand the importance of maintaining or creating a balanced society.

This society must be able to adapt favorably to possible future changes that may occur thanks to the fact that all members of the society have acquired a series of values such as respect, equality, justice, understanding of differences, democracy… All of them are put into practice in the daily development of life. In short, showing full respect for Human Rights guarantees the proper functioning of societies and this must be taught and learned through the Social Sciences.

General and specific study

The social sciences aim to investigate the human being as a whole. These behaviors and different anthropological approaches require early teaching in schools. Due to the importance of these fundamentals, TECH Technological University offers multiple postgraduate programs focused on the teaching of this varied knowledge.

Some examples of this objective of the institution are the Master’s Degree in Didactics of History and Geography in Secondary and High School and the Master’s Degree in Didactics of Political Science, Geography and World History in Secondary.

Likewise, the Master’s Degree in Didactics of Geography and History for Primary School aims to investigate the human being as a whole and this requires a knowledge that is configured by many other knowledge arising from the different disciplines that make up the Social Sciences: Geography, History, Politics, Economics, Anthropology, Demography, Sociology, etc..

Global economy

Several factors affect the global economy. Although these are macro and micro factors, they all form a whole and affect the global economy positively or negatively. Professional economists are always aware of these variables and their constant fluctuations, in order to anticipate any sudden change in them. Therefore, it is necessary that professionals from different areas, such as marketing and finance, take part in this work.

Economic environment

The term economic environment refers to the set of all external economic factors that influence the buying habits of consumers and the market and thus affect a company’s performance. These factors are often beyond a company’s control and can be both large-scale, the so-called macro factors, and small-scale, the micro factors.

In addition to these two groups, there is a third one that deserves to be considered separately because of its relevance: the technological factor which, in the current era, is a source of constant opportunities and challenges for companies in all sectors.

Global economy

The global economy is a concept of special relevance in recent decades, which at a basic level understands the world economic system as globalized and free of barriers or state borders. The creation of large economic unions, such as the European Union, for example, and the development of trade agreements and treaties of different types between a large number of countries in the world, has undoubtedly helped to lower the legal and economic barriers to economic activities in other places in recent years.

Characteristics of the global economy

The characteristics of the global economy are:

Companies operate in different territories throughout the world, acting in a legal and controlled manner not only in their country of origin.
Growth of trade around the world.
Existence of large multinational companies in many different economic fields.
The use of the Internet in connecting communications around the world at high speed.
The global economy involves the movement of people, considered as human resources, as well as goods, which are what have made collectivities into communities of goods and services.
Globalization of production. Especially in countries with cheaper labor.
Interdependence. A state in which two or more locations are mutually dependent and connected. So, if something happens, a failure or a crisis, everyone is affected by some kind of direct or indirect relationship.

Advantages of the global economy

In economics:
- Free trade of goods and services worldwide.
- Decrease in production costs.
- Increased business competitiveness and product quality.
- Technological development that favors production levels and speed.
- Increased job opportunities in developing countries, as multinational companies strategically locate there because raw materials and labor are cheaper.
Policy:
- Changes in national and international legislation to encourage trade, cooperation plans, legal security, market security and new public policies.
In culture:
- Increased cultural exchange through various communication channels.
- Tourism Incentive.
- A set of universal values is created.
Social:
- Increased human relations.
- Greater accessibility to exchange and access information of national and international interest.

Disadvantages of the global economy

In economics:
- Economic imbalance, as developed countries with large economies have imposed themselves over developing countries with smaller economies.
- Increased unemployment in developed countries because multinational companies are opening headquarters in developing countries, where labor and raw materials are cheaper.
- Economic inequality among the citizens of a country, since large companies have greater profits and financial capacity than those of smaller size and power.
- Weakening of natural resources and raw materials in production processes.
Policy:
- In some cases, greater social, cultural and economic inequality has been generated.
In culture:
- Developed countries are able to superimpose their cultures on developing countries through commercial and media pushes, causing them to lose their national identity.
- Minority languages can be blurred.
- Some of the autochthonous traditions are being modified to incorporate new customs from other countries.
Social:
- Social inequality has limited the access and use of different resources such as educational, technological and economic resources in many poor social groups.
- More conflicts between social groups seeking to reclaim their social, religious and cultural values in the face of those that have been implanted through globalization.

Company globalization

Macro factors in a company’s economic environment

Macro factors of the economic environment are usually beyond the company’s control, although their influence on results is significant. This group includes the following:

Employment/unemployment.
Income.
Inflation.
Interest rates.
Tax rates.
Currency exchange rate.
Savings rates.
Consumer confidence levels.
Recessions.

Micro factors in the economic environment of a company

The company can act on the micro factors of its economic environment and, unlike the macro factors, it has the possibility of driving change. This group includes, among others, the following factors:

Demand.
Competition.
Availability and quality of suppliers.
Reliability of the company’s supply chain.

International markets and their environment

Companies must be aware of the local peculiarities of the international markets in which they may be present. This will make it possible to perfect marketing strategies and make commercial actions as profitable as possible. Many companies have failed, despite having very good products, because they did not know how to understand the markets in which they were immersed.

The cause is due to the difference in scenarios between local and foreign markets. In the latter, the environment becomes hostile due to unfamiliarity and lack of familiarity with local customs, norms, methods and other factors. Understanding the new scenarios, and knowing the factors that influence them, becomes key to the success of the international mission.

The professional in the economy

There are several careers that work directly with the global economy. These professionals must take into account all existing variables in order to anticipate the various economic fluctuations that may occur. They usually prepare a series of strategies carefully designed by teams made up of marketing and finance professionals.

TECH Technological University offers a broad educational portfolio where these areas are taken into account. The School of Business is where professionals focused on this area are trained. Clear examples are the specializations such as the, Master’s Degree in International Taxation, Foreign Trade and Customs and the Master’s Degree in strategic Business Management.

In addition, TECH designed a specific program, very close to the economic and marketing themes working together. This is the Master’s Degree in Digital Business, where these two areas come together, in order to specialize the professional in just one year.

Birth rate and mortality

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Ecology is a science as complex as the veterinay field itself. It is therefore necessary to study it in depth, and this is something without an end, as new species are discovered every day, for example. It is therefore essential that professionals dedicated to animal care bring their knowledge to areas such as this. The birth rate and mortality are part of the basic topics within the knowledge of this professional.

Birth and mortality as a common factor

Birth and death patterns are considered fundamental properties of populations. The birth rate is defined as the number of individuals born in a population in relation to a time or time and unit of population. The birth rate equation is a real index of the population under study. It should not be confused with the absolute birth rate. This would express the theoretical maximum of new individuals that are added to a population under ideal conditions. This is without the intervention of any limiting environmental factor.

On the other hand, mortality is defined as the index that represents the deaths that occur in a time or time and population. When referring to mortality in the above equation, it also refers to a given population. Therefore, it is a real index that should not be confused with the minimum mortality, which is a theoretical index of the number of deaths that the population would suffer under ideal conditions. This is without the intervention of any environmental factor. Both the absolute birth rate and the minimum mortality rate are theoretical constants.

Growth

It seems logical to think that, with the inherent properties of populations calculated in the previous section, it is simple to calculate the growth rate of a population. If one were to consider only the individuals that join the population, such as births, and the losses due to deaths, its calculation would be quick. In an ideal case, we would say that the growth rate is the result of the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.

However, there are two other dynamic properties to be considered: immigration and emigration. Immigration is defined as the arrival of a number of individuals of the same species into a population. It can be expressed as the ratio of individuals arriving per unit of time and population size.

Similarly, emigration is defined as the departure of individuals from the population to another territory and can be expressed as the ratio of emigrated individuals per unit of time and population size. In this way, the population is defined as the set of individuals of the same species that inhabit a certain place and have properties specific to their organizational level and inherent to the group, such as birth rate, mortality, growth rate, age structure, etc.

Based on these concepts, the work consists of determining a population growth model that is so accurate that it can predict not only the possible changes that will take place in the future, but also predict how these changes will affect the interrelationships with the set of biotic and abiotic factors of the population.

Exponential growth model

In the book Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), Thomas Malthus determined that populations with an abundance of natural resources had a high growth rate; however, if they were limited in obtaining these resources, growth was also limited.

This model, in which the increase in the number of individuals is based on a constant rate, is known as exponential growth and is the simplest model of population growth.

The variables of the exponential growth model equation are discussed below:

a. r: is the per capita population growth rate. If the figures for immigration and emigration are not taken into account, it coincides with the difference between the birth and death rates. On the other hand, if r is positive, the population will increase in size; if it is negative, the population will decrease in size. Finally, if r is equal to zero, the population does not change, which is known as zero population growth.
b. N: is the number of individuals in the population at a given time.
c. dN/dt: is the population growth rate.

Per capita growth rate

According to this model, although the per capita growth rate does not change, the population growth rate will increase, as the value of N increases. See the following example: in bacteria it is easier to understand this model. Prokaryotic organisms reproduce rapidly, so if you put x number of organisms in a flask, after less than an hour and after the first binary fission, you will get 2x. In the next hour, 4x. After the third hour, 8x.

That is, the growth rate increases itself, as all individuals are included in each generation to the population, so the population size increases at higher and higher rates. If the growth of the exponential model is plotted, the characteristic J-shape is obtained This model is not a representation of a world with limited resources.

When a species is incorporated into a given territory, having its ecological requirements covered, in the first phase, its population can follow a pattern of exponential growth. However, the tendency is for populations to saturate the territories until they exhaust the resources they provide. Thus, the above assumption of the division of bacteria in the flask is not a representative example of reality.

Following the development of Malthus’ theory, a series of consequences were unleashed that became known as Malthusian catastrophe, a term still in use today to describe situations that can make human survival unviable. Figure 6 shows the exponential growth model of a population and the arithmetic growth of resources.

Birth rate and mortality: logistic growth model

As we have seen, the previous model is only probable when there is an infinite amount of resources; or, in the initial phase of population growth, when there are few individuals and a large amount of resources. But, at the moment when the population develops a significant increase, resources begin to run out and the growth rate begins to slow down.

Darwin analyzed this fact and concluded that the amount of resources in an environment is limited and that individuals compete for them, so that the most successful ones are the most likely to survive and develop at a faster rate. At this point, logistic growth is developed with the intention of modeling a reality with finite resources.

In this model, population size is conditioned by the maximum number of individuals that a given environment is capable of supporting under a given set of conditions, a parameter known as the carrying capacity of the environment (K). The environment can only support a given number of individuals of a population.

Birth and mortality control

The procedure of birth and mortality is a control process carefully carried out by veterinary professionals. Therefore, it is necessary that they are fully trained in order to perform their function in an optimal and adequate way.

TECH Technological University seeks to provide the most complete and comprehensive education, virtually, fulfilling its title of the largest virtual university in the world. For this reason, its Faculty of Veterinary Medicine is one of the highlights here. There you can find specializations such as the Master’s Degree in Veterinary Clinical Trials or the Master’s Degree in Internal Medicine in Major Species.

If the professional is looking to expand his knowledge in topics such as the one reviewed in this article, the Master’s Degree in Wildlife Management is the right one for him. Through 10 modules and with the guidance of experts, the professional will become a specialist in just one year.

Origin and evolution of accounting

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There are several traces that allow inferring the existence of the origin and evolution of accounting since prehistoric times, having the necessary or indispensable elements to conceptualize the existence of an accounting activity. Accounting is currently a necessity in each of the existing companies. Due to the complexity of their processes, companies constantly require professional personnel trained in finance to meet these needs. In this article we will see how this important science has been initiated.

Origin and evolution of accounting: primitive man, Mesopotamia and Egypt

Since 6000 B.C., man possessed the basic elements of mathematics and writing, had formed groups, initially as hunters, later as farmers and shepherds, and had already begun to use writing and numbers, necessary elements for accounting activities.

With the emergence of agriculture, livestock and trade, the need was felt to account for the transactions of these activities. The most remote vestige of accounting dates back to the Mesopotamian civilization, which existed thousands of years before the Christian era and, due to its economic growth, required some elements of accounting.

Accounting records have been found in Minoan palaces, Assyrian temples and Egyptian tombs. In the Semitic museum of Harvard University there is a clay tablet more than six thousand years old, on which there are signs printed. Historians interpret these symbols as the income resulting from the economic activity of this civilization.

In Egypt, between 5400 and 3200 B.C., barter-oriented actions were found in the red temple of Babylon. Around the year 3600 B.C., as a result of the Pharaoh Menach’s economic management, some orderly annotations of income and expenses were found by his scribes. The origin and evolution of accounting can be summarized with the most important periods, where the use of accounting is clearly seen.

The Sumerians

Accounting dates back to 6000 B.C. The Sumerians used fresh clay tablets. They recorded income, expenses and profits.

Rome

Accounting dates back to the year 4000 B.C. They kept accounting in two books, Adversaria: where cash operations (income) were recorded and the Codex with the other operations, the plebeians used them to keep the accounting records.

It is worth mentioning that they have found traces of accounting practices dating back to the early years of the empire, recorded in the writings of its most distinguished thinkers. The heads of families were obliged to write down their income and expenses on a daily basis and then record them in a register. The Paetellian Law, published in Rome in 325 B.C., was the first regulation approving accounting entries recorded in ledgers.

It was the Roman bankers, the empire’s privileged caste, who perfected accounting techniques in order to control the retribution they had to grant to the army for their territorial conquests and to the patricians for their political adventures.

Importance of accounting in Rome

From 235 A.C., with the death of Alexander Severus, accounting acquired great importance in ancient Rome. At the time of the republic, accounting was carried out by the plebeians, in the first instance. It was the privileged caste of the empire who perfected the accounting techniques, in order to control the allocations to be granted to the army for their territorial conquests and to the patricians for their political adventures.

Despite the fall of the Roman Empire, accounting practices were preserved and achieved remarkable progress throughout the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church had more persecutors every day, achieved the greatest economic and political power in history, which forced it to keep very detailed accounts of its economic activities, operations that were handled in the monasteries.

Although, there are no testimonies of the accounting practice in the feudal period, the high degree of development of commerce suggests that the practice of accounting was usual, which was exclusive to the feudal lord.

Assyria

Accounting dates back to 3300 B.C. They recorded on clay tablets. They controlled the taxes collected by the king. They also kept fiscal accounting records, printed on clay tablets.

Babylon

Accounting dates back to 1790 B.C. With King Hammurabi, a code was created with his name and accounting records began to be kept.

Greece

As a result of their commercial activities, the level of development of their navy and the remarkable pre-capitalist economic regime, the existence of a structured accounting system is evident, although we only have the testimony of Pagani, who affirms that, in 5th century B.C. Greece, merchants were obliged to keep accounting books.

Accounting dates back to 1500 B.C. They kept accounts in two books, the first one recording income and the second one recording expenses. This as a result of their commercial activities.

Genoa

Accounting dates back to 1340 B.C. Accounting was kept in three books: the first book recorded cash transactions, the second book recorded the current account and the third book recorded the profit and loss.

Florence

Accounting dates back to 1190 A.C. The basis for accounting was the book Adversario and the Codex.

Characters in the origin and evolution of accounting; Benedetto Cotrugli

Precursor of the double entry. He managed 3 books: journal, general ledger and draft or reminder. His contributions were: the outlines of the general ledger and the journal. It is worth mentioning that one of the most significant contributions of Cotrugli’s work is to raise the moral problem of business.

Double entry played a fundamental role in solving logistical problems in the evolution of commercial thinking. Cotrugli is credited not only as the precursor of double entry in the West, but also as the father of modern management.

What is certain is that Cotrugli’s work marked a milestone in the historical social evolution of accounting thought at the beginning of modernity, around the first half of the 15th century. Before Cotrugli, one had to rely on merchants’ books; after Cotrugli, an intellectual tradition of merchants’ manuals seeking to improve accounting techniques began.

Friar Lucas Paccioli

Father of accounting. Introduced the double entry theory in 1492 A.C. His contributions were: he considered that there should be 3 books: the memorial, the general ledger and the journal. He published a book entitled Geometric Arithmetic. In that publication he dedicated a chapter to accounting. It is worth mentioning that he was born in Borgo San Sepolcro, Tuscany, around 1445, without having been an accountant, he was a professor at the universities of Rome, Padua, Florence and Assisi. He wrote with great skill a treatise on accounting in which he argues that accounting requires mathematical knowledge for its application.

Mastering accounting in modern times

It is necessary to know the roots of any subject if we wish to master it in its entirety. For this reason, professionals in the accounting area dedicate themselves to study for years. This provides the basis for different processes and procedures that are currently in force.

Today’s professional must be in a process of continuous search for knowledge. It is necessary to facilitate this route, and TECH Technological University, has this clear. For this reason it designed the Business School Faculty, where it is possible to find different specializations focused on the needs of today’s market, such as the Master’s Degree in Information Technology Management and the Master’s Degree in Digital Business.

It also allocated one of its most important places to the Master’s Degree in Accounting Management. In this program, students will have the opportunity to delve deeper into the proposed information, accompanied by experts in the field.

Lateral canals

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For the dentist it is essential to bear in mind that, with the certain exception that dentin is a rigid structure, the dentin walls do not isolate the pulp content of its interior from the periodontium, since it is well known that there are many lateral ducts, accessories or other communications that put the pulp content and the periodontium in intimate relationship.

Lateral and accessory canals are an anatomical variation of the root canal system that is observed in premolars and molars with significant frequency. Their knowledge is of particular importance because the inability to locate and treat all these ramifications is one of the causes of endodontic failure.

Lateral canals are anatomical components of many teeth, located especially in the apical third of the root and in the bifurcation area of molars.

It is defined that the lateral canals extend from the main canal to the periodontal ligament, especially in the apical or middle third of the root.

Dentinal canal

The dentinal canal runs from the coronary pulp to the root apex in such a way that its coronary limit is in the pulp chamber in uniradicular teeth and in multirooted teeth at the level of the floor of the pulp chamber.

It is important to take into account a number of particularities:

As mentioned above, the dentinal canal is not a simple canal, but one must always consider the possibility that this canal may have multiple branches that the clinician must identify, clean, widen and obturate.
Likewise, if the canal is fully formed, the apical termination is always narrower than the coronary zone. This is why the canal is conical with the narrowest zone at the apical level.
It is at this narrower point that the vasculonervous bundle it contains must be removed and subsequently obturated (cemento-dentinous boundary).
If the root formation is not completely finished, the conical shape of the canal is cylindrical or even inverted conical and it is much more difficult to get the obturation in the correct position.
In the apical zone the dentinal canal continues with the cementary canal, which is never located on the same axis as the previous one. There is always an angulation between the axis of the dentinal canal and the cementary canal. The existence of this angulation together with the fact that at this point the canal caliber is the narrowest, is what leads to choose it as the limit of the preparation and obturation of the canal.
The walls of the dentinal canal are made of dentin.
Inside the dentinal canal is located the pulp vasculonervous bundle or root pulp and therefore the cells it contains are those of the pulp itself, i.e. odontoblasts (dentin-forming), fibroblasts (collagen and ground substance-forming), undifferentiated cells or reserve cells or stem cells that would be the precursors, among others, of the odontoclasts in case there is a process of dentin destruction, undifferentiated cells or reserve cells or stem cells that would be the precursors of odontoclasts, among others, in the event of a process of dentin destruction, defense cells such as macrophages and lymphocytes and blood, lymphatic and nervous vessels. Therefore, in all the processes of repair or destruction of the dentin wall these cells will be involved and not others (no cementoblasts, osteoblasts, etc).

Cementary canal

The cementary canal is the continuation of the dentinal canal thanks to which the latter opens to the apical periodontium. As indicated, its walls are made of root cementum and not dentin. It has already been mentioned in the previous section, as it is the apical continuation of the dentinal canal and it is up to this limit, as already mentioned, where the preparation and obturation of the canal is carried out.

It is important to take into account a series of particularities:

The cementary canal has a truncated conical shape with the lesser foramen continuing into the dentinal canal and with its larger opening into the apical periodontium.
It is a short duct that has been the subject of a large number of studies both histological and anatomical having to highlight at this time the studies conducted by Yury Kuttler (the book was published in 1980) that made extremely accurate measurements. Based on these studies it can be determined that the length of this cement duct is in the order of 0.5 to 0.7 mm, but it is necessary to take into account that these measurements are variable, since the length of the duct is conditioned to the greater or lesser apposition of cement on its walls and on the root apex.
When the cemental canal is in formation, its caliber is so wide as to allow a large vascular supply to the root and chamber pulp bundle, which confers to the infantile and juvenile pulp a great capacity for repair that should induce caution in the differential diagnosis of irreversible involvement of the dental pulp at these ages. It should be noted that in the early stages of root formation there is no apparent angulation between the axis of the dental canal and the cementum, which allows a very fluid vascular supply. The angulation is produced as the periapical root cement begins to be generated, which also closes the lumen of this canal and strangles the vasculonervous supply to the interior of the root pulp. In these cases the difficulty to determine where the cementum-dentinal limit is located is easily understood and it is, therefore, extremely difficult to reach a limit up to where to remove the root pulp and obturate.

At TECH Technological University we have created a Master’s Degree in Endodontics and Apical Microsurgery in which you will acquire the necessary skills to apply the latest and most efficient teaching methods with your patients. Among our most successful study programs, the Master in Implantology and Oral Surgery and the Master in Periodontics and Mucogingival Surgery, which are equivalent to 60 ECTS credits and are completed in one year, are also noteworthy.

The medieval origin of universities

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Before starting, it should be noted that historians collect this kind of information, giving relevance to the most transcendental areas for humanity, one of them is the area of teaching at the University. The medieval origin of European universities emerged from the educational institutions of Latin Christendom in the late Middle Ages, which replaced the palatine, monastic and episcopal schools that had existed since the High Middle Ages. They arose in different cities of Western Europe from 1150 onwards, in the context of the Renaissance of the 12th century.

These institutions established a model of higher education that lasted over time, determining the structure and functioning of the universities of modern and contemporary times. Medieval universities were communities of teachers and students (universitas) which, although their main function was teaching, were also dedicated to research and the production of knowledge, generating vigorous debates and polemics. This was reflected in the crises in which they were involved and in the interventions they suffered from both powers: the political power of kings and emperors and the ecclesiastical power of religious orders.

The medieval origin of universities in Europe

The first universities in Christian Europe were founded in Italy, England, Spain and France for the study of law, medicine and theology. The central part of the teaching involved the study of the preparatory arts, or liberal arts:

The trivium: grammar, rhetoric and logic.
The quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

Later, the student would come into contact with more profound studies, generically called philosophy, which included all types of sciences. The historical studies on the late Middle Ages allow to know the importance of an incipient “renaissance” between the X and XIII centuries, period in which a renovation of the thought and the sensibility took place, establishing the reflection based on the argumentation and the logical reason.

At the end of the 10th century, European culture was promoted by kings, by nobles and by the wisest men of that century, such as the holy father Sylvester II, Gerbert of Aurillac (940-1003), archbishop of Reims, who considered that “of the goods available to men, study and science were the main ones”.

Between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, feudal society and values of a more humanistic nature were shaped, expressed in qualities such as fortitude, perseverance, moderation, self-control and contempt for danger, pain and death.

The fundamental virtues for life were taught to be faith, courage and blind loyalty to one’s equal or superior. For those who did not respect these principles, the punishments were isolation and rejection; defeat was decided on the battlefield or at events or tournaments. The victors were given the recognition of Honor and Bravery.

University in the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries

At this time, in the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, writing became “an instrument of power”; various political, historical and administrative documents proliferated, attesting to administrative and private life.

However, since classical antiquity and especially in the Middle Ages, memory was considered an art to be cultivated. European rhetoricians, orators, philosophers and scientists were concerned with mnemonics. And memory was considered “the mother of wisdom and the treasury and guardian of all things”.

Memory was the only means of transmitting culture before the intervention of the printing press. According to Daniel Boorstin: “Everyone needed the art of memory, which, like the other arts, could be cultivated. Memoristic capacity could be perfected, and virtuous with a highly developed memory were admired”.

In the Middle Ages, abbeys and monasteries were focal points of teaching and education; they were considered as crucibles where ideas were forged. There, manuscripts were kept in special places that became the first medieval libraries. Likewise, there were workshops where miniaturist monks and copyists worked in community.

In these places there were lecterns for the codices that were being copied, tables for each of the copyists, for the rubricators and for the study of the books. Each of the tables had everything necessary for illustrating and copying: bowls with ink, fine quills, pumice stone for smoothing the parchments and gold and colored inks for special finishes. In France, the monastery of Saint Marial de Limonges had an important workshop for copyists and miniaturists.

Transition to the present day

The year 910 marked the beginning of important reforms in religious, political, intellectual, economic and artistic life. There was a special concern to use the most correct forms of the classical languages. Latin prevailed and was especially the vehicle of expression for clerics, intellectuals and students. In addition, a number of poets wrote their works in Latin.

The process of knowledge transmission has been appreciated by mankind throughout the years, being this an important task at a general level in humanity that has taken force in the different previous civilizations as well as in the contemporary one. It must be emphasized that nowadays, professionals prepared for these situations are required.

University systems

Currently, there are different university systems. The U.S. educational system, which is often taken as a college and career benchmark, offers a rich array of options for the foreign student. There is such a variety of institutions, programs and locations to choose from that the choice can be overwhelming for students, even those from the United States.

As you begin your search for institutions, it is important to know the U.S. educational system. Understanding the system will help to narrow down options and develop an educational plan. The academic year at many schools is composed of two terms called “semesters”. (Some schools use a three-period calendar known as a “trimester” system). Still others further divide the year into a four-period quarter system, which includes an optional summer term. Basically, if the summer term is not included, the academic year consists of two semesters or three quarter terms.

The structure of university studies in Europe, adapted to the implementation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), comprises three levels of education: bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees, which are valid throughout the EHEA, currently made up of 49 countries. The fundamental objective of the EHEA is to facilitate the mobility of students, faculty and graduates among all member countries. The aim is for students to continue their studies, if they so wish, at another university in the system. It generates faculty exchange programs and facilitates the international mobility of workers with higher education qualifications.

How can the professional be prepared?

TECH Technological University knows the importance of knowledge transmission. Clearly, and being the largest virtual university in the world, this is one of the areas in which it is most specialized. Because of this, the Faculty of Education was created, where the professional has the option to specialize in various areas such as the Master’s Degree in International Cooperation for People Development and the Master’s Degree in Didactics of Geography and History for Primary School.

On the other hand, for those professionals who wish to dedicate their professional efforts to higher education, Master’s Degree in University Teaching has all the necessary tools to achieve this intellectual goal.