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Report and theses writing

A research paper requires the study of all the existing bibliography on the subject. This requires that the information analyzed is organized in the proper way, so that it can then be included correctly in the writing of reports and theses.

The elaboration of a research paper requires the following phases:

Selection of the subject.
Elaboration of the schedule.
Definition of objectives.
Literature review.
Methodology selection.
Conducting field work.
Conducting analyses or experiments.
Elaboration of results and conclusions.
Drafting of the final document.
Publication of the work.

Choice of topic

The correct choice of the topic for research is fundamental, because if topics that are completely unrelated are chosen, it will be more difficult to review and understand the literature. First of all, the scientific problem to be clarified must be clear. The scientific problem:

It is an objective problem that is feasible to solve.
Facilitates the solution of other problems in your field of knowledge.

The topic to be investigated must be well conceived and formulated from its origins to its conformation in the research topic. It must have its formal expression in the title of the research. The objective requirements to be kept in mind in the choice of the research topic are:

Selection of a plot within an area of knowledge.
Opening of research horizons through readings of the field and neighboring fields and consultation with specialists.
Use of criteria of scientific relevance and human relevance for the qualification of the research topic.
Confirmation of the existence of a scientific problem whose resolution is possible and appropriate at the present time.
Verification of the existence of bibliographic and documentary material and, in general, of external auxiliary means.
Verification that the problem in question has NOT been resolved.
Status of the research topic in a program or line of research within an institute or department.
Correct statement of the theme: distinction between main theme and collateral themes.

Work planning

When conducting research, it is necessary to know how to manage time properly. The best way to do this is to draw up a schedule that includes the tasks necessary to achieve the objectives. A very common resource to keep track of the time devoted to each task is the Gantt chart.

A Gantt chart is a tool that will allow you to plan your research efficiently. In graphical form it is:

The start and end date of the project.
What tasks must be performed.
The scheduled start and end date of the tasks.
How the tasks overlap and/or if there is a relationship between them.
Relevant research milestones.

Data collection and interpretation

A research studies a field using the tools at its disposal, which will vary depending on what is being investigated. For example, if you are analyzing a work published by a 19th century author, you will probably need to consult other documents he wrote: the documents he used as references, documents of the authors he cites, etc. Whereas if you are analyzing the economic repercussions of an event that occurred a couple of years ago, you would start with statistical information, interviews or audiovisual documents.

The collection of information for the research starts with a correct definition of the topic. This means that when the research topic is selected, the type of information to be accessed and whether it is, at the same time, accessible or affordable must be considered. Once the topic, objectives and hypotheses are defined, the next stage of any research is the literature review, which serves to:

To carry out the state of the art of the research.
Find the theoretical framework to conduct the research.

Information organization

When starting an investigation, it is necessary to know the state of the matter, because it will serve as a starting point. It is necessary to make an exhaustive compilation of the information related to the topic to ensure that no important aspect is left out. All the bibliographic material analyzed should be recorded on cards that will allow the information to be registered, organized and filed, so that it can be easily and quickly retrieved. The cards can be:

Bibliographic.
Content: these, in turn, may be textual, summaries or personal judgments.

Writing techniques

When starting to write a research paper, it is important to keep in mind who you are addressing in order to use the appropriate vocabulary and make it as clear as possible. In order for all readers to be clear about the concepts you are referring to, it will always be necessary to define the terms you are using unless they are indisputable expressions in a discipline. In addition to defining all relevant concepts, it is important to try to write clearly and concisely.

To point out specific aspects within a research work, there is a set of Latin locutions accepted in any research work which are:

Ibidem, Ibid. means “the same” and is used to repeatedly quote the same author in the same work, but on a different page.
Idem. Means “the same” and is used to repeatedly quote the same author on the same page.
Op. cit (opus citatum). It means “work cited”.
Cf. (confere). It means “compare, consult, confront.”
Circa, ca. Means “Approximate date or information”.
V. gr. (verbi gratia). It means “for example”.
et al. means “and others”.
Sic (sicut). It means “verbatim”, “thus” or “read as is”.
Vid. (videtur). Means “see”.
Apud. Means “supported by”, “cited or based on”.
Passim, pass. It means “anywhere” or “indistinctly”.
Et seq. et sequens. Means “and what follows”.
Vs. see. versus. Means “against”, “in comparison with”.
N. d, undated. It means “no date.”
N. l, non locus. It means “without place”.

Subsequent uses of a report or thesis

Once the research has been completed, a decision must be made as to what to do with the thesis. The first use that is usually made is the publication of the contents in the form of a book. It is important to keep in mind that a thesis is not a book, but a different type of document with different characteristics. A book must arouse the reader’s interest to be read, so it will be necessary to adapt the writing, style and format of the contents.

The general characteristics of the thesis, which differentiate it from a book, are the limited audience, the formal requirements, the structure and the demonstration of acquired knowledge. It can also be distributed through scientific journals or other formats that can be taught in universities or through specific training courses.

Specific research

Regarding the existing research processes and writing tools that exist to obtain optimal results in projects of different styles, TECH Technological University created high quality programs in order to train students with such skills.

The Master’s Degree in Marketing Research and Techniques Management and the Master’s Degree in Business Science Research have a 100% online training that will allow you to easily combine your studies with your professional and personal life, with the support and backing of the most efficient system in the educational market.

This complete Master’s Degree in Research in Economic Science has been developed by the best professionals in this field to offer you a complete and efficient training path that will allow you to obtain the necessary competences to carry out, in a complete way, a research in this area.

The origin of the universe

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The origin of the universe has often been considered one of the fundamental topics of the humanities. However, with respect to this question, specific branches such as religion and science have been commissioned. It is not wrong to say that all of them are cosmogonies, for cosmogony is the science or system that studies the origin and evolution of the universe.

Religious discourse and scientific discourse are often based on different modes of argumentation and methods that make their compatibility difficult. However, some theorists have claimed that the limit of scientific explanation can only be crossed by religion. Therefore, the two would not be incompatible but different levels of the same discourse.

For example, the current Big Bang theory presupposes the origin of the universe from a great exposition arising from nothingness or a primordial void. For many scientists such a presupposition is inconceivable and some assume the discourse of creation and faith because, as Aristotle argued, being cannot be conceived from non-being. Such a thing would be to fall into a contradiction. Whenever something exists it must be conceived by someone. For this reason, if the origin and evolution of the universe came from a great explosion, such a hypothesis is not necessarily incompatible with the existence of God.

Three theories about the origin of the universe

Ancient Age

A mythological explanation of the origin of the universe prevailed. Although the tradition in antiquity was essentially oral, there is the writing of Hesiod where the cosmogony is compiled. In a way, the hegemony of this conception changed with the so-called leap from myth to logos. Thus, the origin of the universe was conceived by Plato by an ordering intelligence called Demiurge. In the case of Aristotle, the universe could not have an origin because it is eternal, although the first cause of motion is the first immobile motor. In any case, for antiquity the universe responded to a geocentric model. This means that the whole universe oscillates around the Earth.

Middle Ages

Explanations and arguments of a theological nature are found, linking what the ancients called the Demiurge or first immobile motor with the nature of God. The universe will continue to be geocentric, but it will not be infinite, as Aristotle thought, because it must have a beginning (creation) and an end (apocalypse). This stage is also called theocentric because God is the efficient and final cause of the universe. The Holy Scriptures give an account of the origin of the universe from the creation ex nihilo (from nothing) of God. Theology and the Church are intermediaries between human beings and God, whose revealed truth about the origin of the universe will be explained through Genesis.

Modern Age

A change appears in the conception of the origin of the universe and its representation, which will be heliocentric. Although the theological argument is still predominant, the authority and credibility of the ancients will diminish as a result of certain discoveries: errors in the calculation of the motion of celestial bodies; that they are not perfectly spherical bodies but have irregularities; it will reveal doubts about the studies of Aristotle and Ptolemy on the origin and nature of the universe. This stage goes in consonance with the so-called scientific revolution, where authors like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler or Newton will give account of a universe that is opposed to the observations and calculations of the ancients.

Geocentrism and heliocentrism

Geocentrism was the predominant system during the Ancient and Middle Ages that placed the Earth as the immobile center of the universe. The predominant conception was that the Earth was surrounded by eight spheres traced by various celestial bodies as first described by Plato. In fact, it is possible to affirm that all the descriptions about the universe will take as a model the Platonic explanation, since it is a description where the observation converges with a mythological explanation.

The geocentric model advocated by Plato states that the Earth remains motionless at the center of the universe. It is surrounded by eight concentric spheres carrying the Sun, the Moon, the five planets known so far (Saturn, Mercury, Jupiter, Mars and Venus) and the fixed stars, which are located in the last sphere and always maintain an unalterable distance between them. This conception of the universe will hardly be altered throughout the Middle Ages.

Therefore, heliocentrism will be a model that will appear for the first time in the Ancient Age through Aristarchus of Samos. However, this model was not successful because the geocentric theories of Plato and Aristotle were considered more accurate. Heliocentrism will gain importance through the theories of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton, although when they were proposed the prevailing model was still geocentrism.

Biblical doctrine of creation

In contrast to the doctrine of the origin of movement according to Aristotle by means of the first immobile motor, St. Thomas Aquinas will offer an important revision of the concept of creation in which he highlights a relevant fact: the importance of the category of relationship between the human being and his creator, instead of other attributes such as efficient cause.

The doctrine of creation is not incompatible with scientific discourse, since both would correspond to different levels where scientific discourse would find a limit. This is because its framework is based on demonstrable evidence and, clearly, it can presuppose, theorize and speculate about the origin of the universe by means of conjectures, but it cannot demonstrate in an exhaustive manner.

In any case, it is possible to underline some features or characteristics that differentiate the theories about the origin of the universe from a religious and a scientific point of view. The Judeo-Christian tradition defends a conception of the origin of the universe through the first book of the Bible, Genesis, which narrates the creation, by the hand of God, of the world, plants, animals and human beings. This theory has been called creationism. In other words, God created all things and then, in his image and likeness, the first parents, Adam and Eve, from this first couple descended all humanity. As a consequence of this conception, aspects such as, for example, that all species of living beings were created once and for all and, therefore, that they were immutable, are inferred. At the same time, it affirms the separation between the human being and the rest of living beings.

Definition of theodicy and theology

Theodicy

It is considered the branch of traditional metaphysics that deals with the demonstration of the existence of God, as well as his nature and his justification as creator and responsible for the world. Although some philosophers have called theodicy natural theology, it differs from theodicy basically in the rejection of the arguments of faith. Another essential theme of theodicy is the study of evil in the world and how to reconcile pain, suffering and injustice with the infinite goodness and omnipotence of God. As Sánchez Meca has pointed out, many philosophers, such as St. Augustine and Leibniz, have argued that evil is a consequence of human freedom.

Theology

It refers to the study of the myths, dogmas and rites of a given religion, generally based on its sacred texts or revelations and guided by faith. This aspect is essential to distinguish it from theodicy, which, although it deals with the nature of God and the demonstration of his existence, does not accept the discourse of faith, but only that invoked by means of reason. In Christian theology, St. Paul is considered the first who tried to extract a systematic doctrine from faith. However, due to the length and depth of his work Summa Theologica, many consider St. Thomas Aquinas as the systematic theologian for excellence.

Philosophical theories

Social developments in different branches and areas are susceptible to a deeper analysis, from an anthropological point of view, than that developed by other sciences. In these exceptional philosophical programs, available at TECH Technological University, such as the Master’s Degree in Ethics, Political Philosophy and Anthropology and the Master’s Degree in History of Philosophy and Historiography, you will discover how to develop a systematic and complete analysis of society.

On the other hand, in the Master’s Degree in Philosophy and Theory of Society you will find, throughout a process of personal and professional growth, the expressions inherent to the human being. With the most interesting approaches and the complete baggage of knowledge that the contemporary philosopher needs to develop his own thinking, or to expose, debate or explain the existing paradigms.

Requirements of a molecular biology laboratory

In recent decades, the battle for health has been driven by scientific research. The creation of a line of work that transcends conventional genetic recommendations has been immersed in the relationship between genetics, nutrition and pathologies. This new way of working offers a new approach through new ways of intervening that also require updates in both clinical treatments and laboratory-based care.

Laboratory requirements

Molecular biology aims to explain biological phenomena in molecular terms. It integrates various disciplines of knowledge from basic sciences to biology, including biochemistry, physiology, physics and mathematics. It is the most modern branch of biology and medicine. In molecular biology laboratories, an infinite number of methods and techniques are carried out on the basis of nucleic acids. They are performed for diagnostic purposes or for risk estimation in both genetic and non-genetic pathologies.

Molecular biology focuses on the study of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins: the two macromolecules of greatest relevance in the functioning of living beings.

Basic instructions

Biological agents

According to Royal Decree 664/1997, a biological agent is defined as “material or its derivatives, including genetically modified material, cell cultures and human endoparasites, susceptible to cause any type of infection, allergy or toxicity”

Biological agents are classified according to their hazardousness. Based on this classification, the necessary protective measures must be taken for activities with exposure to biological agents. Four hazard levels are then established:

Group I biological agent: unlikely to cause disease in man.
Group II biological agent: can cause disease in humans. There is effective prophylaxis or treatment, so it is unlikely to spread to the community.
Group III biological agent: can cause disease in humans and presents a risk of spreading to the community. Effective prophylaxis and treatment is available.
Group IV biological agent: causes serious illness and represents a serious danger to the worker. With high risk of spreading without the existence of prophylaxis or effective treatment.

Basic material

The basic instrumentation and equipment for a molecular biology laboratory does not involve a very large outlay either technically or economically. The basic instrumentation does not differ much from that required for a standard laboratory.

Refrigerators and freezers are required for the preservation of samples and reagents. Generally, these are very similar to those for domestic use, but probes are added for temperature control. This ensures that the temperature is constant enough to detect possible failures that could damage both the sample and the reagents.

Sample handling is performed with automatic pipettes and disposable tips to avoid any contamination between samples. If the protocol or the sample requires it, it is necessary to work inside laminar flow hoods. To complete the work, small laboratory equipment such as centrifuges, microcentrifuges, thermostatic bath, electrophoresis system and image capture are needed. In addition, to work with DNA, it is very important to know both the quality and concentration of the DNA. Spectrophotometers or fluorometers are used for this purpose.

Thermocyclers

A separate mention is required for PCR equipment. Thermal cyclers or PCR machines perform the temperature cycles necessary to amplify DNA (PCR or polymerase chain reaction). PCR is a fundamental technique in molecular biology.

Environmental conditions

Laboratory conditions must be perfectly controlled since variations in laboratory temperature or humidity can affect the quality of the results. It is important to be able to reproduce your own results and to do so you must avoid any internal or external variables. Most laboratory equipment is precision instrumentation and works within a very narrow range of temperature and humidity.

PPE

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is “any equipment intended to be worn or held by the worker to protect him from one or more risks that may threaten his safety or health at work, as well as any complement or accessory intended for this purpose”.

In a molecular biology laboratory, the PPE used protects the skin, eyes and hands. Depending on the reagents used, it is also necessary to protect the respiratory tract when working in fume hoods.

Glasses

Their purpose is to protect the worker’s eyes. There are different types of eyewear from which you should choose the one that best suits your needs.

Screens

These cover the entire face of the worker. In the laboratory, face shields with plastic visors are often used.

Gloves

Its purpose is to protect the skin from contact with toxic, irritating or corrosive substances, as the hands are the part of the body with the highest risk of contact. In addition to chemical products, contact with biological agents must not be forgotten. Gloves are made of different materials (PVC, PVA, nitrile, latex…) and the use of one or the other depends on the risk to be protected.

Gown

The gown protects against the risk of impregnation of clothing with chemical or biological agents.

Other measures

The laboratory must be equipped with measures of action and protection to control any emergency situation. The UNE-EN 15154 standards regulate the installation and operation of showers and eyewashes in laboratories. These equipments must be in areas of free access and properly signposted.

Required accreditations

Accreditations are very useful tools to guarantee the reliability and quality of the analyses performed both in the healthcare sector and in R&D laboratories. Any accreditation must be granted by an accreditation organism external to the company and recognized nationally or internationally.

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is a non-governmental organization whose function is to develop standards and regulations for industry and commerce. ISO 15189 standard specifies the requirements that clinical laboratories must meet for the analysis of biological samples of human origin. The standard is divided into two parts:

Technical: describes requirements for personnel, facilities, equipment, procedures, reporting and quality assurance.
Management: refers to the requirements for the certification of the quality system.

For a laboratory, the fact of having an accreditation means that:

The staff is qualified and experienced.
The equipment and infrastructure are adequate and functioning properly.
Methods and procedures are appropriate, ensuring calibrations and traceability.
Applies methods for quality control of the entire process.
The results are certified and accurate.

Legal Aspects

Personal information generated in the laboratory is considered confidential information. Any person having access to this information must be aware of its confidentiality and have signed a confidentiality document.

The information must be processed according to the criteria and procedures established by the Organic Law on Personal Data Protection (LOPD). The data generated may contain health information, so they must be specially protected.

Molecular biology context

The constant innovation in the field of medicine and the volume of existing materials makes training in it a difficult goal to achieve. High quality training is TECH Technological University answer to this need.

As examples of different specialized areas of healthcare, the Master’s Degree in Clinical Genetics and the Master’s Degree in Precision Oncology: Genomics and Big Data are available postgraduate degrees related to the topic of laboratory results and the study of DNA for the use of new treatments.

On the other hand, a complete and updated compendium of learning that will allow the physician to be trained can be found through the Master’s Degree in Genomic and Precision Nutrition.

Background of phytotherapy

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In ancient times medicine was completely different from what we know today. The use of drugs and new medical techniques has produced a constant evolution and abrupt changes in medicine. This does not mean that medicine in ancient times was not functional, only that the old methods were adapted to the new times. Therefore, the background of phytotherapy has a relevant weight for pharmacy professionals.

Introduction to the background of phytotherapy

A historical summary of the use of medicinal plants and the development and implementation of phytotherapy as a science and therapeutic alternative helps to understand and trust their efficacy and safety. The use of medicinal plants for curative purposes is a practice that has been used since time immemorial.

For a long time, natural remedies and, above all, medicinal plants, were the only resource available to mankind. The first herbalists date back to the time of the Assyrians, Babylonians and Phoenicians. They constitute a compilation of the knowledge of the period concerning the curative properties of plants, starting the history of phytotherapy.

Among the ancient civilizations, Ancient Egypt stands out, with papyri related to medicine. These compile and describe a series of formulas in which they used some 400 raw materials (mostly of vegetable origin). They were used for the elaboration of medicines that were applied by means of advanced forms of administration such as pills, lumps, cookies, powders and suppositories.

In India, the so-called “Ayurvedic medicine” was developed, which is still in use today, and which mainly uses plants in its treatments. Among the medicinal plants introduced by the Hindus, many are still used in current therapeutics, such as pepper, ginger, cloves, nutmeg, sandalwood, caraway and others.

Use of plant species

The therapeutic use of plant species was the main basis of classical Greek and Arabian medicine. In classical Greece, the Corpus Hippocraticum, was the first treatise in which about 230 plant species are collected; their identification, description of the part used, their effects on the body and their therapeutic applications, the amount to be used, the most appropriate form of administration and their toxicity.

Later it was Dioscorides in the first century, who described in a work the properties and form of use of some six hundred medicinal plants. This work was expanded in the field of medieval Islamic Hellenism, including species of African and Asian origin. The ancient Arab physicians, among whom Avicenna was prominent, recovered the works of the physicians of classical antiquity to use them as the basis of their medical teaching.

In the Renaissance, there was an important incorporation of new medicinal species. This happened with the discovery of the new world and the arrival of Europeans in East Asia. In the 14th century, a great development took place, as medicinal plants began to be cultivated in botanical gardens in order to be studied and classified.

The development of phytotherapy began officially on a worldwide scale. When the first official pharmacopoeia (a list of remedies and officinal preparations) was published in Florence (1498): the Antidotarium Florentinum.

XVIII Century

At the end of the 18th century, medicine had an important knowledge of plant species for medicinal use and there was a great scientific development of the therapeutic use of plant species with the appearance of Pharmacognosy.

During the second half of the 19th century, pharmacology developed largely around the study of herbal remedies, as numerous active principles were isolated. The study of these allowed the relationship between the active principles and their action on the organism to be explained.

These discoveries led to the beginning of drug synthesis and medicinal plants were practically excluded from therapeutics, their use being limited to popular medicine (mainly in rural areas) and the naturopathic field (a movement that arose in Central Europe in the mid-19th century, based on Hippocratic humoralism, which reached a remarkable acceptance among a large part of the population).

History of phytotherapy: the transition to modernity

However, in the second half of the 20th century, there was a resurgence of natural medicine. This happened partly due to the detection of adverse effects in synthetic medicines or the increase in the control methods of analysis of plant drugs. It is currently estimated that 60-80 % of the world’s population uses phytotherapy. This happens at some point in their lives and that in developed countries the percentage of citizens who do so on a regular basis is increasing.

In Spain, seven out of ten Spaniards (68%) claim to use medicinal plant preparations. This is to prevent or treat ailments, according to a study by the Center for Research on Phytotherapy (INFITO).

Among the institutions that promote and encourage the use of phytotherapy are the Commission of the German Ministry of Health. Its purpose is the study of plant drugs and their combinations, the European scientific cooperative on phytotherapy (ESCOP), European federation of the scientific societies of phytotherapy of the different European countries, the World Health Organization (WHO), with its program on traditional medicine and the European Pharmacopoeia with its monographs related to plant drugs and derivatives. In Spain, the Spanish Society of Phytotherapy (SEFIT), founded in the year 2000, stands out. Its purpose is the development and study of medicinal plants and their applications.

Which professional is involved in phytotherapy?

This question can be applied in several professional fields, but it is safe to say that the main actor is the pharmacy professional who has the possibility to take advantage of this knowledge to the maximum, providing his community with an added value. Knowing all about phytotherapeutic medicine helps to broaden the possibilities of relief for different diseases.

TECH Technological University offers a broad portfolio of specializations including all possible professional fields. Among so many faculties, the Faculty of Pharmacy stands out with specializations such as the Master’s Degree in Pharmaceutical Care in Dermatology in Community Pharmacy and the Master’s Degree in Professional Pharmaceutical Care Services in Community Pharmacy.

A large number of professionals seek to specialize in phytotherapy due to the growing demand in this field. That is why TECH offers the Master’s Degree in Advances in Applied Phytotherapy for Pharmacy. In it, the professional will find the necessary information to complete his professional career in this area, thus becoming an expert in the field.

Asepsis and sterilization

Infections in veterinary medicine can occur both at the time of surgery and during the hospitalization period or during the following days. It is very important that all personnel in contact with the surgical patient have some basic concepts about asepsis and sterilization to minimize the risk of iatrogenic infection. Asepsis is defined as the absence of microorganisms that can cause disease. Antisepsis is the prevention of diseases or infections by destroying or inhibiting the growth or multiplication of the microorganisms that cause them. The sterilization and disinfection processes are aimed at destroying microorganisms. The difference lies in the fact that sterilization eliminates spores and other forms of life, which disinfection does not ensure.

It is not possible to maintain a complete absence of microorganisms in a hospital environment; therefore, the use of aseptic pathogen control techniques is necessary. Strict adherence to the principles of asepsis is the main factor in preventing infections. All personnel in the room should comply with these principles to make the surgical site less favorable to bacterial colonization; outbreaks of pathogens have been detected in which the anesthesia team was involved. In addition, the anesthesia team and ancillary staff perform invasive procedures, such as catheter placement, which require the same aseptic techniques.

Disinfection methods

It is advisable to follow a series of techniques that help reduce the amount of pathogenic microorganisms in the day-to-day hospital environment, such as regular hand washing, use of sterile and non-sterile gloves when handling sources of pathogenic microorganisms (patients at risk, equipment, etc.), cleaning of materials and instruments after use between different patients, regular cleaning protocols for equipment and surfaces, proper storage of equipment and surfaces, proper management of soiled clothing and textiles, containment of supplies and equipment, proper containment of supplies and equipment, and proper management of soiled clothing and textiles.), cleaning materials and instruments after use between different patients, regulating protocols for cleaning equipment and surfaces, proper storage of equipment and surfaces, proper management of soiled clothing and textiles, containment of contaminated supplies and equipment, proper maintenance of heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems, minimizing unnecessary foot traffic and isolating patients with infectious pathologies.

During the actual surgical procedure, the general principles of asepsis must be known and respected by all staff members working in the surgical environment: use sterile instruments within the sterile field, use of gown and gloves during the procedure, sterile persons operate only within the sterile field, and non-sterile persons touch and handle non-sterile objects, sterile cloths are used to create sterile fields, objects and instruments used in the sterile hood must be sterilized, all objects introduced into the sterile field must be opened, offered and transferred by methods that maintain sterility and integrity, a sterile field must be maintained and constantly monitored, and surgical staff must be trained to recognize when sterility has been breached and what solutions can be applied.

Asepsis and surgical sterilization

Performing an adequate surgical technique minimizes the risk of infection. Tissues must be handled carefully, in such a way that the least possible trauma is produced, maintain effective hemostasis, but keeping the blood supply, remove devitalized tissue, eliminate dead spaces, use drains and adequate suture material, any implant of foreign material should be used as little as possible because it reduces the resistance of the wound to infection.

Synthetic suture is the most commonly used material for closure of surgical incisions. Multifilament sutures have been shown to favor bacterial growth over monofilament sutures. Primary closure with staples has been shown to increase the risk of SSI (Surgical Site Infection) in veterinary medicine.

Closure of clean and clean contaminated wounds should be performed primarily. Contaminated wounds may be closed primarily or delayed to promote drainage. For dirty wounds, closure should be performed by secondary intention. Transmission of microorganisms in veterinary hospitals can occur through contaminated instruments, the environment itself and, above all, the personnel working there.

In human medicine hospitals, within this human-to-human contact, the airborne route, droplets and physical contact are the most common routes of transmission; however, in veterinary medicine these routes of transmission are less common due to a lower incidence of zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted between patients and the workers themselves. Environmental transmission between sick animal patients is the most common route.

Sources of contamination

Contamination sources can be divided into animal source and inanimate source. Skin, hair, nasopharynx and other orifices, such as genital and digestive, are part of the animal source of contamination. Within the inanimate source is air and fomites. These are any surface or inanimate object capable of carrying and transmitting pathogens (walls, floor, sheets, etc.).

The levels of disinfection and sterilization have been described to prepare the objects according to the contact with the patient in the different procedures, as well as their assigned use; the levels are listed in:

Critical: within this level it is possible to find implants and instruments that penetrate or come into contact with levels below the skin. They must be sterilized and used with a sterile technique.
Semi-critical: equipment and instruments that come into contact with the skin and/or mucous membranes during the surgical procedure, but without penetration to deeper levels. Although they are usually sterilized, this would not be necessary, since sterility is not maintained during use; thorough cleaning and disinfection would be sufficient (e.g. vaginoscope).
Non-critical: equipment or instruments that contact mucous membranes or intact skin, but not directly associated with a surgical procedure. It should be cleaned and disinfected, but does not require specific handling between patients (e.g., laryngoscope).

Main disinfection methods

Most disinfectants are liquid compounds, such as alcohols, phenols and derivatives, quaternary ammonium compounds, heavy metal ions, ethylene oxides, halides, aldehydes, ethylene oxide, etc. The choice of the same will depend on the expected use of it, all microorganisms, including spores. Others have less effect eliminating pathogens.

Among the most commonly used disinfectants is alcohol (isopropyl alcohol or ethyl alcohol), which has good disinfectant properties and very good antiseptic properties and is used for cleaning stains and preparing fields for injections. It is volatile and corrodes stainless steel.

Among the chlorine compounds is hypochlorite, which is used for cleaning surfaces and countertops, has poor antiseptic properties, but good disinfectant properties. It is inactivated by organic wastes and corrodes metal. Iodine compounds (iodophors) are used for cleaning dark-colored floors and countertops and have good disinfectant and antiseptic properties. Caution should be exercised when using them, as they stain fabric and fabric.

The importance of asepsis and sterilization

It is of vital importance for the health professional to know everything related to cleaning and disinfection. This knowledge ensures that the professional performs his or her work in a safe and adequate manner. This is why it is important for the professional to be trained so that he/she is fully proficient in this area.

For the professional development of this knowledge, TECH Technological University has designed the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, in order to provide a prompt solution to the various social needs that arise in this area. Clear examples of this are the Master’s Degree in Medicine and Surgery of Ruminants and the Master’s Degree in Medicine and Surgery of Poultry.

On the other hand, for those professionals who wish to specialize in the area of small species, their welfare and health, there is no doubt that the choice should be the Master’s Degree in Veterinary Cardiology in Small Animals. Through 10 modules, the professional will specialize in this area, thus becoming an expert in the field in just one year.

What is dietary history?

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The dietary history is the traditional method of analyzing dietary intake. In its traditional structure it consists of three components that provide global information on the individual’s habitual intake pattern and also detailed information on some foods.

The assessment of diet and eating behavior are essential to guide the origin of a nutritional disorder.

Dietary history is used to describe the usual food and/or nutrient intake over a relatively long period, e.g., 1 month, 6 months, 1 year.

The dietary pattern allows us to approach the actual current intake of the child, both in micro and macronutrients, to know possible excesses or deficits compared to the recommended parameters. For this purpose, it is necessary to know what foods are consumed, the quantity and frequency, preparation and preservation.

There are several methods for estimating dietary intake and they can be classified according to the way in which the data are obtained and the time period assessed. None of them will be ideal and all will have their advantages and disadvantages. The choice should be based on the conditions of the study and the objectives pursued.

Method	Advantages	Inconveniences
24h reminder	Independent parents academic formation. Simple application. High response rate.	They do not report exact nutrient intakes. Diet varies from day to day.
Dietary Record	Food omission decreases. Foods described more accurately. More accurate proportions. Allows to know preferences, schedules and places of intakes.	Requires active participation. Registration decreases as days go by. There may be modification of habits during recording. Recording at the end of the day: incomplete.
Frequency of food consumption	A long period of time is evaluated. Avoid recent dietary changes. Can be self-administered. Low cost.	Only measures quality, not quantity. Possibly incomplete listings. Requires too much time for the subject.
Food weighing	Fairly accurate intake.	Needs practice for weighing, requires a trained person.

If you are interested in deepening your knowledge in this area of nutrition, do not miss our Master’s Degree in Clinical Nutrition in Pediatrics, which has the complete and updated content you need to advance professionally. Another high-level training option, available at TECH, is the Master’s Degree in Nutrition in Home Hospitalization, which responds to the high demand for specialized professionals in the health area. We also have an in-depth postgraduate degree in Sports Nutrition, aimed at nutritionists who wish to direct their professional career towards high-performance sports.

TECH’s brilliant teaching staff, made up of true professionals with more than 10,000 hours of experience in Nutrition, is responsible for generating, organizing and updating the contents of our online courses, as well as guiding students and presenting the real cases that are solved in the development of the training programs. In order to assimilate, contextualize and make the most of the knowledge you acquire, it is best to reinforce it by observing experts and with their advice, so that you can become a professional at the height of the labor, clinical and personal demands of the sector.

Traditional and current grammar

When we speak of traditional grammar, we must go back to the 19th century to Ferdinand de Saussure and his structuralist school. From this theory of signifier-meaning and grammatical structures, it is known that traditional grammar bases its objective on the knowledge and good use of the grammatical code and its linguistic forms.

In this definition there is a missing element: the communicative component. In traditional grammar it was considered that the fact of knowing the inventory of grammatical categories and rules was enough to develop communicative ability, although decontextualized.

The methodology of this type of grammar consisted of isolated sentence analysis in which the student had to be able to recognize to which grammatical category each element belonged and, if necessary, to do so in an orthographically appropriate way. However, this way of teaching the language only ensured that the learner developed a memoristic capacity but not a practical one, much less a communicatively accepted one.

The current focus of language teaching is no longer exclusively on teaching grammar and grammatical analysis as such. It is now focused on teaching linguistic and communicative skills.

Despite the fact that, in this case, the methodology of language and, on the other hand, the methodology of literature should be studied, it is important to bear in mind that the current perspective of the teaching of Language and Literature Didactics approaches them from an interdisciplinary perspective, that is to say, as a whole.

Obviously, in order for students to develop communicative competence, texts can be used to support them. In the same way, in order for them to develop literary competence, they must have a series of skills that will allow them to optimally and adequately produce a text of any genre. The first thing to consider is that, until the 20th century, language teaching was linked to the discipline of Applied Linguistics.

The objective of this traditional and current grammar is not to analyze the structure of the languages but to create a specialized jargon that makes it possible to speak with greater propriety about the facts of the languages and to facilitate their use and learning in practical situations.

On this basis, the author examines in this work the most important aspects of traditional and current grammar and its relation to linguistics. This approach includes, in particular, the value of language and the way in which writers produce their texts.

In general, the concepts and terminology of traditional grammar are inadequate for the problems currently posed in linguistic research where other more formal theoretical approaches such as generative grammar or functional grammar are used.

When we speak of traditional grammar, we must go back to the 19th century to Ferdinand de Saussure and his structuralist school. From this theory of signifier-meaning and grammatical structures, it is known that traditional grammar bases its objective on the knowledge and good use of the grammatical code and its linguistic forms.

However, the emergence of new sciences and studies has given an impulse to the autonomy of Language Didactics as an emerging discipline, specializing in language teaching. Some of the disciplines that are part of the set that form the said teaching are:

Pragmatics: The science that studies the strategies that regulate the use of language in relation to a specific:
established standards.
Textual linguistics: It understands the text as a macrostructure superior to the isolated sentence.
Sociology and sociolinguistics: It focuses on the study of the varieties and different ways of speaking according to geographical adscription within a society. Today this discipline is of high importance from the point of view of the heterogeneity encountered in the classroom.
Discourse analysis: Current that emphasizes linguistic performance in order to establish situational corrections.

The most substantial difference between the contents of the current traditional grammar is the purpose of the student being able to carry out an exercise of grammatical reflection, accessing his mental grammar and his knowledge of the communicative rules. Taking this into account, grammar teaching should be approached from a proposal of activities based on a real use of the language.

TECH Technological University offers this Master’s Degreee in Training of the Teacher of Spanish Language and Literature in Secondary Education designed so that those teaching professionals who wish to specialize in this field can access quality training, which guarantees them job success, completely online. It should be noted that we have other postgraduate courses available for secondary school teachers who wish to progress in their teaching work, such as the Master’s Degree in Teacher Training in Economics and Business in Secondary Education or the Master’s Degree in Teacher Training in Biology and Geology in Secondary Education.

History of Scrum

Scrum is one of the most mentioned words when it comes to agile methodologies, however, it is just a framework that works as a channel to develop “agility”. As described in the first unit Agile is a way of thinking that goes hand in hand with the Agile Manifesto.

Scrum, on the other hand, would be a framework in which, among other things, the vocabulary used in it is defined:

Roles
Event
Artifacts
Rules

Through which the people who participate in their environment can perform and develop. The big difference is that the frameworks are adaptable and can be worked in different ways, however, the ways of thinking are rigid and bounded.

This is why Scrum can be defined as a framework suitable for developing projects with high complexity. When talking about a complex project, the following aspects can be identified:

Testing
Innovations
New or upcoming practices
Project with undefined scope

In particular, it is a very suitable practice for environments with a high rate of change in an environment in which the team does not have all the variables clear but a common objective.

The history of Scrum begins with the publication of an article in the Harvard Business Review in 1986, and can be summarized in 6 milestones from its creation to the present day.
– The New Product Development Game” is the Harvard Business Review 1986 article in which the term Scrum is introduced in a context of continuous and incremental knowledge creation. It is when, for the first time, the articulated work of a multidisciplinary team in function of common objectives is related to the progress of the formation (Scrum) of a rugby team.
– During the OOPSLA conference in 1995, Sutherland and Schwaber jointly presented what would become the first Scrum framework.
– As mentioned above, in 2001 the Agile Manifesto was presented.
– Schwaber together with his team decided to found the Scrum Alliance, which set the first certification parameters for the framework.
– Schwaber and Sutherland in 2009 publish a public domain document called The Scrum Guide.
– The Scrum Guide document launches its 5th edition in 2017.

Scrum in work teams
Scrum as already defined is a framework that applied in the right way and in the right projects means a great improvement in performance and efficiency, however, Scrum is characterized by being:
– Light to process and apply
– Easy to understand
– Difficult to master
Consequently, Scrum theoretically enchants everyone who reads it and understands it as a miracle for their project or organization, the truth behind it all is that Scrum is very easy to understand, but it is a framework that requires practice and experience for teams to work efficiently.
At the beginning (4-6 months) in the adaptation stage of the framework, the satisfaction of the teams in terms of efficiencies and feelings can even be negative, to the point of thinking that Scrum is not really the right thing to develop the project. This is because the mindset or way of thinking of the organization and the teams is adapted to work in a traditional way and the resistance to cultural change means great losses in the development of Scrum.
Over time Scrum begins to take shape within the project and people begin to adapt to the new roles and artifacts, thus efficiency begins to rise delivering great value to the project. Once this level of maturity is reached in an organization, the rest of the projects will start and maintain a high level of work efficiency. It is of great importance to be able to manage the expectations of the people that integrate a new Scrum group so that there is no abandonment of the project at the beginning of the team’s formation.

Empiricism in Scrum
Scrum is based on a theory called “Empiricism”, which makes it based on experience. By employing an iterative approach in its framework this implies an improvement of the processes in each iteration in order to manage risks and predict the actions that promote the appropriate development.

Empiricism has 4 fundamental elements to its operation:
– Reliance on human experiences as the formers of existing concepts.
– Denial of absolute truth.
– Recognition that truths can be tested for modification or abandonment.
– Not to oppose reason.

Over time scrum begins to take shape within the project and people begin to adapt to the new roles and artifacts, thus efficiency begins to rise delivering great value to the project.

At TECH Technological University we offer a Master’s Degree in Project Management developed by a brilliant teaching team with extensive experience in the sector, which stands out alongside the Master’s Degree in Digital Business Management and our Executive MBA, of one year’s duration and equivalent to 60 ECTS. Get trained through the most effective teaching method and advance in your professional career.

Global economic environment

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Within the global economic environment there are fluctuating variables that must be controlled. This task must be performed in advance by companies in order to prepare for various situations. These factors must be anticipated in many occasions, by the personnel trained for this action, which always turn out to be the professionals in Digital Business.

The term global economic environment refers to the set of all external economic factors that influence consumer buying habits and the marketplace and therefore affect a company’s performance. These factors are often beyond a company’s control and can be both large-scale, the so called macro factors, and small-scale, the micro factors.

In addition to these two groups, there is a third group that deserves to be considered separately because of its relevance: the technological factor which, in the current era, is a source of constant opportunities and challenges for companies in all sectors.

Global economy

The global economy is a concept of special relevance in recent decades, which at a basic level understands the world economic system as globalized and free of barriers or state borders.

The creation of large economic unions, such as the European Union, for example, and the development of trade agreements and treaties of different types between a large number of countries around the world, has undoubtedly helped to lower the legal and economic barriers for carrying out economic activities in other places in recent years.

Characteristics of the global economy

The characteristics of the global economy are:

Companies operate in different territories throughout the world, acting in a legal and controlled manner not only in their country of origin.
Growth of trade around the world.
Existence of large multinational companies in many different economic fields.
The use of the Internet in connecting communications around the world at high speed.
The global economy involves the movement of people, considered as human resources, as well as goods, which are what have made collectivities into communities of goods and services.
Globalization of production. Especially in countries with cheaper labor.
Interdependence. A state in which two or more locations are mutually dependent and connected. So, if something happens, a failure or a crisis, everyone is affected by some kind of direct or indirect relationship.

Advantages of the global economy

In economy:
- Free trade of goods and services worldwide.
- Decrease in production costs.
- Increased business competitiveness and product quality.
- Technological development that favors production levels and speed.
- Increased job opportunities in developing countries, as multinational companies strategically locate there because raw materials and labor are cheaper.
In politics:
- Changes in national and international legislation to encourage trade, cooperation plans, legal security, market security and new public policies.
In culture:
- Increased cultural exchange through various communication channels.
- Tourism Incentive.
- A set of universal values is created.
Socially:
- Increased human relations.
- Greater accessibility to exchange and access information of national and international interest.

Disadvantages of the global economy

In economy:
- Economic imbalance, as developed countries with large economies have imposed themselves over developing countries with smaller economies. Increased unemployment in developed countries because multinational companies open headquarters in developing countries, where labor and raw materials are cheaper.
- Economic inequality among the citizens of a country, since large companies have greater profits and financial capacity than those of smaller size and power.
- Weakening of natural resources and raw materials in production processes.
In politics:
- Sometimes it has generated greater social, cultural and economic inequality.
In culture:
- Developed countries are able to superimpose their cultures on developing countries, through a strong commercial and media push, causing the latter to lose their national identity.
- Minority languages can be blurred.
- Some of the autochthonous traditions are being modified to incorporate new customs from other countries.
Socially:
- Social inequality has limited the access and use of different resources such as educational, technological and economic resources in many poor social groups.
- More conflicts between social groups seeking to reclaim their social, religious and cultural values in the face of those that have been implanted through globalization.

Global economic environment: business globalization

Macro factors in a company’s economic environment

Macro factors of the economic environment are usually beyond the company’s control, although their influence on results is significant. This group includes the following:

Employment/unemployment.
Income.
Inflation.
Interest rates.
Tax rates.
Currency exchange rate.
Savings rates.
Consumer confidence levels.
Recessions.

Micro factors in the economic environment of a company

The company can act on the micro factors of its economic environment and, unlike the macro factors, it has the possibility of driving change. This group includes, among others, the following factors:

Demand.
Competition.
Availability and quality of suppliers.
Reliability of the company’s supply chain.

International markets and their environment

Companies must be aware of the local peculiarities of the international markets in which they may be present. This will make it possible to perfect marketing strategies and make commercial actions as profitable as possible. Many companies have failed, despite having very good products, because they did not know how to understand the markets in which they were immersed.

The cause is due to the difference in scenarios between local and foreign markets. In the latter, the environment becomes hostile due to unfamiliarity and lack of familiarity with local customs, norms, methods and other factors. Understanding the new scenarios, and knowing the factors that influence them, becomes key to the success of the international mission.

Mastering the global economic environment

Knowing the economic environment in its entirety does not mean that it is completely mastered. Being such a changing area, with so many factors that define it, it is almost impossible to predict how its movements will be. Even so, the fact of having the knowledge gives us a clear advantage in the market: being able to anticipate some fluctuations.

TECH Technological University directed its efforts and professional resources to design a master’s degree specialized in this area. This specialization can be found in the School of Business, where it is also possible to find high quality master’s degrees such as the Master’s Degree in International Taxation, Foreign Trade and Customs and the Master’s Degree in Strategic Business Management.

The fluctuating market can be known in its entirety and learn from the best. The Master’s Degree in Digital Business brings us closer to this panorama, offering through its modules the possibility of acquiring this advantage in record time, and get trained by experts today!

International Taxation

International relations are an unquestionable fact, since neither individuals nor states can live in themselves. In this sense, supranational intercommunication is but the logical conclusion of indisputable premises that take on even greater importance, if possible, in the economic sphere.

Indeed, the dynamism of modern reality, characterized by the mobility of people and the international transfer of capital as a projection of a tax system that is not confined within borders, entails the need for States to organize the exercise of the various taxation sovereignties that are considered legitimate to tax the same manifestations of wealth. As a result, a new branch of the legal system was born, International Tax Law, which has its roots in the conclusion of the first tax conventions against double taxation by sovereign States after the First World War, under the auspices of the League of Nations, creating what is known as international taxation.

International Tax Law or International Fiscal Law regulates those situations in which the tax system of two or more countries may be applicable, for example, the case where a company/legal entity that is fiscally resident in Spain obtains income in France. So the key is that there are two points of connection (relationships) in two or more tax systems, one in the country of the source of income (France as an example) and another in the country of residence (Spain). This is what International Taxation is about, analyzing and resolving the conflicts existing between two, or more, tax sovereignties. And this is what is going to be analyzed profusely during this course from a practical point of view. Therefore, the adjective international does not refer so much to the source of legal production, since often there are rules of internal source, as well as the object of the same.

Purposes of International Taxation

Each State decides which connection points it will take into account in applying its direct and indirect taxes, which is done through the establishment by each national regulation of the criteria for being subject to the tax.

In direct taxes, States normally tax the income produced in their territory, regardless of who earns it, and in turn usually tax their residents on worldwide income.

In direct taxes, States normally tax the income produced in their territory, regardless of who earns it, and in turn usually tax their residents on worldwide income.

“Everyone shall contribute to the support of public expenditures in accordance with their economic capacity through a fair tax system inspired by the principles of equality and progressiveness which, in no case, shall be confiscatory in scope.”

Principles of International Taxation.

There are two basic principles in the field of taxation, to which must be added the principle of neutrality.

These are the residence principle (defended by the world’s rich countries or capital exporters) and the source principle (defended by developing countries or capital importers).

Residency principle
Most countries make a distinction when defining the scope of application of income taxes, depending on whether or not the taxpayer is resident in their territory. Generally, residents of a country are taxed on their worldwide income, i.e. irrespective of where the income is earned, resulting in unlimited tax liability. Non-residents, on the other hand, are taxed only on income from domestic sources (source principle). The taxation of worldwide income of residents has generally been justified on the basis of the progressive nature of income taxes, and that in order to achieve full progressivity and in accordance with the principle of economic capacity, all income of that subject should be taxed, regardless of where it has been obtained. Additionally, it has been justified on the basis that the resident in a territory is the one who obtains public services from it (security, health, education, etc.) and therefore should be taxed in that territory.

This connects with how the tax residence of individuals and legal entities is determined in the international sphere. Especially in the DTAs (Double taxation agreements) and in the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) Model Convention.

Source principle – territoriality
Most countries tax non-residents only on the income they earn in those countries. That is, they tax the income originating in that country, called the source country. In other words, income generated within the territory of the state is taxed in accordance with the internal rules of each country, regardless of the nationality, domicile or place of residence of the taxpayer. This is what Article 13 of the Non-Resident Income Law (Royal Legislative Decree 5/2004, of March 5) does in Spain, which establishes which income has been obtained in Spain to be taxed internally, except for the existence of an applicable Double Taxation Agreement.

It is important to note that there are certain countries that apply the source principle even to the taxation of their residents, as do Bolivia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Uruguay, Hong Kong or Singapore.

If you want to delve deeper into this field of taxation, don’t miss our Master’s Degree in International Taxation, Foreign Trade and Customs, prepared by internationally recognized experts. The Master’s Degree in Digital Business Management and the Máster’s Degree in Digital Marketing and E-Commerce Management also stand out for how they respond to the needs of the labor market.